
-n ; ^7 



v irst Lessons 



IN 



Physiology 



Hutchison 



• — ^? — * 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Shelf. ..„•: 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



First Lessons in Physiology. 



FOR 



ELEMENTARY CLASSES. 



ffnllS Kllnstvatrtr. 



v- 



BY 



Joseph C Hutchison, M.D , LL.D., 

AUTHOR OF "THE LAWS OF HEALTH," AND A TEXT-BOOK ON "PHYSIOLOGY AND 
HYGIENE," EX PRESIDENT OF THE NEW YORK PATHOLOGICAL SOCIETY, EX- 
VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF MEDICINE, SURGEON 
TO THE BROOKLYN CITY HOSPITAL. LATE PRESIDENT OF 
THE MEDICAL SOCIETY OF THE STATE OF 
NEW YORK, ETC., ETC. 




KEW YORK: 
Clark & Maynard, Publishers 
771 Broadway and 67 & 69 Ninth Street. 

1886. 






A COMPLETE COURSE 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

BY 

JOSEPH C. HUTCHISON, M.D., LL.D., 

Ex-President of the New York Pathological Society; Vice President of the 

New York Academy of Medicine; Surgeon to the Brooklyn City 

Hospital; late President of the Medical Society of the 

State of New York. 



First Lessors in Physiology and Hygiene. 
A Book for Elementary Grades. 160 Pages, 16mo, Cloth, 

The Laws of Health. 
Intended for Grammar Grades. 223 Pages, 16mo, Cloth. 

Physiology and Hygiene. 
A Work for High Schools and Academies. 320 Pages, 12mo, Cloth. 



Each book in the course complies with the laws requiring instruc- 
tion in the physiological effects of stimulants and narcotics. 

Copyright, 1886, by Clark & Maynard. 



PREFACE. 



In this little book the author has endeavored to present in the 
simplest manner possible such information on the interesting 
subjects of physiology and hygiene as may be comprehended 
by the youngest pupil. The statements made are believed to 
be trustworthy so far as they go. The effects of stimulants and 
narcotics on the human body have received very careful con- 
sideration, and the views presented upon these subjects are be- 
lieved to be in accord with the latest scientific conclusions. 
This matter has been distributed through the book, because it is 
entitled to the same consideration as other subjects pertaining to 
the health of the body. The book may be read, if not studied, 
by the younger pupils, preparatory to the study of the author's 
larger work on Physiology and Hygiene. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

Introduction 11 

CHAPTER II. 
The Bony Framework of the Body 17 

CHAPTER III. 
The Muscles 27 

CHAPTER IV. 
The Skin 35 

CHAPTER V. 
Food and Drink 43 

CHAPTER VI. 
Digestion 53 

CHAPTER VII. 
The Blood and its Circulation 68 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Respiration or Breathing 81 

CHAPTER IX. 
The Nervous System 95 

CHAPTER X. 
The Five Senses 110 

APPENDIX. 

Emergencies 131 

Drowning 135 

Home and Health 1 36 

Care of Sick-room 140 

Disinfection 143 

On Going into the Country 145 

Poisons and their Antidotes 146 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Fig. page 

1. The skeleton -. 16 

2. Section of bone 18 

3. Structure of bone, magnified 19 

4. Elbow-joint 20 

5. Spinal column 21 

6. Cells of Cartilage .'.'.' 22 

7. Ribs in natural and healthy state 23 

8. Ribs showing effects of tight lacing 23 

9. Knee-joint 23 

10. Muscular tissue, magnified 27 

11. Biceps muscle 28 

12. Muscles and tendons of the hand 28 

13. Tendon of Achilles 29 

14. The muscles 30 

15. Apparatus for exercising 32 

16. Root and transverse section of hair, magnified 37 

17. Hair, skin, and sweat gland 38 

18 Granules of potato starch 48 

19. Section of a tooth 53 

20. Section of the jaws— right side 54 

21. Section of the jaws 55 

22. Structure of a salivary gland 56 

23. Alimentary canal 58 

24. Section of chest and abdomen 60 

25. Chest and abdomen — back view 61 

26. The lacteals 62 

27. Blood corpuscles 68 

28. Corpuscles of fowl, shark, and frog 69 

29. Heart and large vessels 71 

30. Section of the heart 73 

31. Web of frog's foot, magnified 75 

32. Circulation in a frog's foot 75 



8 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Fig. page 

33. Organs of the chest 82 

34. Larynx, trachea, and bronchial tubes 63 

35. Diagram of the structure of the air-cells 83 

36. Section of the lungs 84 

37. Section of mouth and throat 85 

38. Ventilation by window 92 

39. Cerebro-spinal system 96 

40. Upper surface of the cerebrum. . .- 98 

41. Vertical section of the brain 99 

42. Base of the brain 99 

43. Brain and spinal cord 100 

44. Section of nasal cavity 113 

45. Vertical section of the eye 116 

46. Front view of the eye-ball 117 

17. Retinal image 119 

48. Front view of eye 120 

49. Diagram of the ear and its parts 123 

50. Section of the ear . . 124 

51. View of inside of ear 125 



FIRST LESSONS 

IN 

Physiology a^d Hygiene. 



CHAPTEK I. 

Inteodiction. 

1. When we first go into a house where we are to live. 
if only for a short time, we are anxious to know all about 
it. We ask about the number of the rooms, their size, 
how they are furnished, and which we are to have for 
our own. Our bodies are the houses which our souls in- 
habit, — houses made for them by God. — which they will 
occupy while life continues ; but, strange to say, we know 
very little about them. In this little book we shall try 
to learn something about our bodies, that we may be able 
to take better care of them, and to keep them strong and 
healthy. 

2. We all know that our bodies are made of flesh and 
bones. They can move, not like trees and plants, which 
are moved by the wind, but in obedience to our will. 
We can go where we " will," or choose to go. We can 
see, feel, hear, eat, and sleep. These things can be done 
by the lower animals as well as by man, and seem to us 
very natural ; but when we think about them as some- 
thing new, or as something to be created anew, how very 
wonderful they are ! 



12 INTRODUCTION. 

3. Our bodies are always warm, even on very cold 
days when everything is covered with snow and ice. 
Why does not the cold affect us as w T ell as the trees and 
plants? It is on account of the food we eat, which goes 
into the stomach, and after passing through certain 
changes, becomes a part of the body, and not only warms 
it, but repairs the waste, or wear, that is constantly going 
on. 

4. When you prick your fingers or hurt yourself in 
any way, you feel pain. What causes it? The pain is 
caused by the irritation of the nerves, which are thread- 
like cords that start from the brain and go through every 
part of the body, even to the ends of the fingers and 
toes. The nerves are our telegraph-wires, carrying mes- 
sages to and from the brain, which is the central station. 
Let us suppose that a flame or a hot iron comes suddenly 
near the hand, how quickly will the hand be withdrawn, 
even if we are looking the other way ! Some nerve just 
under the skin telegraphs to the brain the approach of 
danger, and instantly another nerve brings back a mes- 
sage to take the hand aw r ay. Were not the nerves so 
quick to receive impressions, we should be subject to 
very serious injuries which we can now avoid. 

5. We also " will" to walk, to write, to speak, and our 
feet, hands, and tongue do w r hat we wish. The brain 
sends out its orders by the nerves to the muscles which 
move the different parts of the body, and these good 
little servants obey them. That part within us which 
thinks and reasons and wills, w r e call the mind, and it is 
this mind which places us above the lower animals. 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

6. There are a few hard words which we shall he 
obliged to use in studying about our bodies, arid it will 
be well for us to know the meaning of them before we 
commence our lessons. 

7. We shall first learn about the form and structure of 
our bodies. The science which tells us about that is 
called Anatomy. 

8. We next learn about the uses of the different parts 
of our bodies. This study is called Physiology. 

9. The branch of science which tells us how to take 
care of our bodies, so that we may be strong and live 
longer than we otherwise would, is called Hygiene. 

10. The bones of the body put together in their proper 
places form the Skeleton. 

11. The red bundles of flesh that, with fat, give form 
to the body are the Muscles. 

12. The hair-like cords by which we feel and control 
the muscles are called the Nerves. 

13. The body without head, arms, or legs is called the 
trunk. The trunk is divided by a partition, in the form 
of an arch, called the diaphragm. The heart and lungs 
are in the upper part, which is called the thorax, or chest. 

14. The lower part of the trunk, containing the liver, 
stomach, intestines, and some other organs, is the abdomen, 

15. Any part of our body that does the work which be- 
longs particularly to it is called an organ. The eye is the 
organ of sight ; the ear, of hearing ; and the nose, of smell- 
ing. A function is the special work of any organ. It is 
the function of our eyes to see, of our ears to hear, and 
of our nose to smell. 



14 INTRODUCTION. 

16. The simplest form of any part of the body is 
called a tissue. The skin is a tissue. There is a fatty 
tissue, muscular tissue, nerve tissue, and many other kinds 
of tissues. 

17. An organ which makes something out of the blood 
to be used by the body, or which takes something out of 
the blood that has ceased to be useful and must pass away 
from it, is called a gland. 

18. To keep ourselves in good health so that we may 
be happy and useful to others, we must know how to 
keep our bodies and their organs in good order. We 
must have good food and that which we can digest ; but 
must be careful not to eat more than we can digest 
easily. 

19. We must have plenty of pure air and exercise. 
We must bathe often, and have clothes that will keep us 
warm. We must also have plenty of sleep at night. 
Sleep in the daytime and late hours at night will not give 
us the rest that we need. 

20. Even young people can learn what is best for them, 
and, by following the directions that will be given them 
for the proper care of their bodies, may avoid much sick- 
ness and save their friends much trouble. These lessons 
are only a beginning, and will be simple enough for any 
child to understand. When you are older you will learn 
more from larger books as well as from experience. 
Therefore heed all these plain teachings, and believe that 
Health is one of the best gifts and that much may be done 
to keep it, as well as, through ignorance and neglect, much 
may be done to lose it. The Good Book says, " All that 



INTRODUCTION. 



15 



man hath will he give for his life ;" and yet life may be- 
come almost a burden if health is gone. A long life, a 
useful life, and a happy life is possible only in the pres- 
ence of health. 

Note to Teachers. — The teacher should explain this chapter fully 
to the class. In studying the following chapters, many helps to the 
pupils' understanding may be given by obtaining at the batcher's the 
various organs of an ox or a sheep, and pointing out to the class the 
parts named in the took. The order in which the subjects of the 
chapters have been treated is such as the experience of the author has 
found to be the best. While it has been the purpose to make the text 
as simple as the nature of the subject would permit, it has been found 
necessary to anticipate a few of the more common organs, and we 
trust the teacher to see that they are understood. 



QUESTIONS 

1. What are you going to learn about? 

2. Of what is the body made? 

3. What is the skeleton? 

4. What good does our food do us? 

5. What causes our bodies to feel pain? 

6. Tell the uses of the nerves. 

7. Of what use is the brain to the body? 

8. What does anatomy teach us? 

9. What science teaches the use of the 

body? ..... 

10. What is the meaning of the word hygiene ? . 

11. What are the muscles? 

12. Where is the chest? Give another name for it. 

13. What do we mean by an organ of oar body? 

14. What do we call the simplest form of any part of our body? 

15. What is a gland? ...... 

16. What must you do to keep yourselves well ? . 



different parts of the 



11 
12 
13 
12 
12 
12 
12 
13 

13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
14 
14 
14 




Fig. 1.— The Skeleton. 



CHAPTER II 
The Bony Framework of the Body. 

1. Use of the Bones— The Skull. — As the beams and 
rafters of a house keep the walls, ceilings, and floors in 
place, so the bones keep the soft parts of our body in 
place, and protect such parts as are easily hart. The 
soft brain is protected by the skull which, as it is round 
and hard, can bear heavy blows. 

2. The Back-bone and Chest.— The delicate spinal cord 
lies secure in the long tube-like canal of the back-bone. 
The lungs and heart are inclosed in a bony box called 
the thorax, or chest, formed by the ribs, breast-bone, and 
the back-bone, or spine. The eyes are placed in deep 
hollows in the skull, as also is the inner ear with which 
we hear. 

3. Number of Bones.— There are in the whole body 
about two hundred bones, large and small. All of these 
have their names, some of which are short and easy to 
learn, while others are so hard that they will be left to 
some future lesson. These bones are fitted together, and, 
as you have been told, are called the skeleton. They can 
move easily, and without pain to us, when we are in 
health. 



18 



THE BONY FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY. 



4. The Size and Shape of the Bones.— If we look at 
the picture of a skeleton (Fig. 1) we shall see that the 
bones differ in size and shape. There are the long bones, 
like those in the legs and arms; the short bones, like 
those in the wrists and ankles ; and the flat bones, like the 
shoulder-blade and the knee-cap. 

5. The Structure of Bones. — If we take a bone of the 
leg or arm and saw it lengthwise (Fig. 2), we shall see 




Fig. 2.— Section op Bone. 



that, although it is hard on the outside, it is hollow in 
the middle. This hollow or cavity holds an oily sub- 
stance called marrow. The outside of the bone is full 
of little holes, through which tiny blood-vessels run, like 
a network, to the inner part of the bone, to supply it 
with food. 

6. Strength of Bones. — You probably think that any- 
thing hollow is more easily broken than if it were solid ; 
but we find, by making experiments, that a hollow tube 
will bear greater weight than the solid cylinder made of 
the same amount of material. 



THE BONY FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY. 



19 




7. Substances of which Bones are Made (Fig. 3).— 
Bones are made partly of a mineral substance called lime, 
and partly of an animal matter called gelatine, which is 
soft and jelly-like. There is about 
twice as much lime as gelatine in the 
bones. If we put a bone into the fire, 
the gelatine is burned out, and the 
lime which is left, though it is the 
same shape as before, is white, and 
very easily broken. If we put another 
bone into a mixture of two ounces of 
muriatic acid and one pint of water, 
the acid will take the lime away, or 
dissolve it, as we say, leaving the Fig - 3 -- StructureofBone < 

^ ENLARGED. 

gelatine ; and if the bone is long 

enough, it can be tied into a knot without breaking. 

8. Change in Bones.— As persons get old, they have 
more lime in their bones ; for that reason a very little 
fall may break them, and when broken they do not unite 
easily. The bones of children have so much gelatine 
that they can bear very hard blows without breaking. 
When broken they have long jagged points like broken 
chicken-bones, and they unite very quickly. A child 
has been known to fall from a third-story window to the 
paved sidewalk without breaking a bone. 

9. The Skeleton (Fig. 1). — The framework, or skele- 
ton, consists of three important parts : the skull, the 
trunk, and the limbs. The skull is made, not, as we 
might suppose, of a single bone, but of eight bones, 
fitted together like the pieces of a dissected map or pict- 



20 



THE BONY FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY. 



ure. We see it has an oval, or egg-shaped, top, which, 
as has already been said, makes it very strong. If you 
squeeze with both hands an egg lengthwise, it is not 
easy to break it, although its shell is so thin. This is on 
account of its shape. For the same reason, very hard 
blows may fall upon the skull, and because the bones are so 
yielding they will not break, but bend. We have already 




Fig. 4.— Elbow joint. A, Bone of the arm; B, C, Bones of the fore-arm. 

learned that this egg-shaped, yielding skull protects the 
brain, which is in the top and back part of the head ; the 
eyes, which are sunken in cavities or holes in the front ; 
and, with the bones of the face, the organs of hearing, of 
smell and of taste. The chest, which is the upper part of 
the trunk, holds the heart, the lungs, and the great blood- 
vessels, while the lower part of the trunk holds and pro- 
tects a variety of important organs. The back-bone, ribs, 
and hips are the bones of the trunk. 

10. The Joints. — The place where the bones meet is 






THE BONY FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY. 21 

called a joint (Fig. £). Between the ends of the bones 
is a thin sac of fluid, called cartilage, which looks like 
the white of an egg. The effect of this fluid on the joints 
is like oil on the wheels of a carriage. It 
makes the joints move easily and without 
noise, and flows only as fast as it is needed. 
Without these sacs of lubricating fluid, most 
of the movements of the body would be 
difficult and painful. 

11. The Vebtebbje. — The back-bone ex- 
tends from the skull to the lower part of 
the trunk, and is called the spine. If we 
count the spots in the picture, we find it 
has twenty- six small bones, called vertebrae 
(Fig. 5), placed one upon the top of the 
other, and fitted exactly together, much like 
a string of beads. Each of these bones has 
a large hole through it, making a tunnel or 
long tube the whole length. This tube 
protects the spinal cord, which we shall 
learn about in another chapter. Projecting 
from each of the vertebrae are bony knobs 
to which some of the muscles of the back 
are fastened. 

12. Flexibility of Back-bone. — The 
back-bone, called the spinal column, is a 
curious and interesting part of the body to fig. 5.— the 

n Tx • a *li i i i Spinal Column. 

study. It is very flexible and can be curved 
in many directions with ease and without injury to the 
spinal cord. Some circus performers can bend their backs 
until their heads can almost touch their heels. 



22 THE BONY FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY. 

13. Strength of Back-bone.— The back Lone in an 
erect position is also very firm, and will bear a great 
weight. We have often seen men and women carry very 
heavy loads or pails of w T ater upon their heads, which they 
do not touch with their hands ; yet they seem to walk as 
easily as any of lis do without a load. Boys stand upon 
their heads and hands, throwing the weight of the body on 
the bones of the neck and on the skull. While many do 
this and escape injury, it is not safe or wise to attempt it. 

14. The Cartilage. — The joints in the back differ from 
a other joints in having thicker layers 

of gristle, or cartilage, between them. 
This elastic material prevents the 
brain and other organs from being 
injured by sudden falls or missteps, 
and also enables the joints to move 
easily. The constant pressure upon 
these joints during the day, by walk- 
ing, jumping, and other exercise, 
makes the cartilage thinner, so that 
a person is not so tall at night as in 

Fig. 6.— Cells of Carti- * o 

lage. the morning. If you wish to be as 

tall as possible, you must get measured in the morning. 

15. The Ribs. — The ribs (Fig. 6) are twenty-four in 
number, twelve on each side of the spine, and are joined 
to the breast-bone in front. See how many you can 
count in your own body. The upper ones are fixed at 
both ends, the lower ones are free in front, but move when 
we breathe. This makes the chest like a box with flexi- 
ble or movable walls for the lungs and other organs, about 
which we shall study. 




THE BONY FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY. 



23 



16. The Hips and Thighs. — Below the ribs are the 
hips, which have hollow, cup-shaped cavities into which 




Fig. 7.— Ribs in a Natural and 
Healthy State. 




Fig. 8.— Ribs Showing the Effects 
of Tight Lacing. 



the thigh, or upper bones of the leg, so fit that we can move 
our legs in every direction. At the knee-joint, the thigh- 
bone and the two bones of the lower part of the leg meet. 




Fig. 9.— View of Knee-joint.. A, Thigh bone; B, Knee-pan; C, D. Leg bones. 

17. The Knee-pan. — A flat bone called the knee-pan 
(Fig. 9) covers the point of union, and is intended to pro- 



24 THE BONY FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY. 

tect the joint from injury. If you extend the leg, letting 
the heel rest upon the floor, this movable bone can be 
easily felt. The knee-pan is often broken or injured by 
a fall upon the knee when skating or playing. 

18. The Feet. — The ankle has seven small bones which 
are bound so firmly together that they can bear the 
weight of the whole body. There are twenty-six small 
bones in the foot, which are so joined that the whole 
foot is elastic, and we are able to run and jump without 
injuring our feet or any part of our bodies. 

19. The Toes. — The toes can be made to do work 
that belongs to the fingers, if the hands are wanting. 
Persons who have no hands have been known to write 
Well, to paint good pictures, to feed themselves, and, in 
short, do many things with their toes almost as easily 
and naturally as we do with our fingers. 

20. The ARMS. — The arms are joined to the upper part 
of the trunk by the collar-bone and shoulder-blades, 
which may be easily felt. There is one bone in the 
arm, which is the part above the elbow, and two in the 
fore arm, or that part below the elbow. The wrist is 
formed of eight little bones, strongly held together ; and 
joined to these are the bones of the hand and fingers. 

21. How to Keep the Bones Healthy. — When chil- 
dren are young, the bones are easily bent, and, being soft, 
sometimes grow out of shape. If a child is allowed to 
walk too early, he may become bow-legged. If we wear 
shoes too tight for us, our toes will be put out of shape, 
and we are likely to have bunions, or distorted joints, as 
well as corns. If we bend over our work or desks, in- 



THE BONY FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY. 25 

stead of keeping an upright position, round shoulders are 
generally the result. When standing or sitting, throw 
the shoulders back, hold the head erect, expand the chest, 
and keep the natural curves of the spine. By following 
these directions we may avoid the deformities that such 
habits of stooping are likely to produce. 

Note to the Teacher. — It would be an interesting exercise if 
the teacher would ask the pupils to point out on some one of their 
number the location of the different parts mentioned in this lesson. 



26 



THE BONY FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Compare the bones with the framework of a house.. 

2. How is the brain protected? . 

3. In what are the lungs and heart inclosed ? 

4. How many bones are there in the body? 

5. Are all the bones the same size and shape? 

6. If you saw a bone in two lengthwise, how does it look? 

7. What does the hollow cavity hold? 

8. What do you find on the outside of the bone? 

9. "What is the use of the blood-vessels? 

10. What arc bones made of? Give the proportion. 

11. What happens if you put a bone into the fire? 

12. What happens if you put it into a certain acid ? 

13. What are the proportions of the acid and the water? 

14. Why do the bones of old people break easily? 

15. Why are the bones of children less easily broken? 

16. Of what important parts does the skeleton consist? 

17. How many bones are in the skull? 

18. What is the shape of the skull? and why is it made so? 

19. What are the uses of the skull ? . . . . 

20. Describe the chest and its uses. 

21. What are the bones of the trunk? . 

22. What is a joint? Describe it. 

23. What is between the ends of the bones, and its use? 

24. How many bones has the spine? Describe them. 
25 What is the use of the cartilage? . 

26. When are you tallest? .... 

27. How many ribs have you? Describe them. 

28. Where are the hips? What bone do they support? 

29. What bones meet at the kneee- joint? 

30. What is the knee-pan and its use? 

31. How many bones has the ankle? . 

32. How many bones has the foot? 

33. What can the toes and feet do beside enable you to walk? 
31 How are the arms joined to the trunk ? . 

35. How many bones are in the arm? In the wrist? 

36. Are children's bones strong? Give the facts. 

37. What causes bow legs and other deformities? 

38. Will tight shoes hurt you? Why? 

39. How should you sit when you are studying or working at : 

desk? and why? ..... 



CHAPTEK III. 

The Muscles. 

1. How the Body is Moved. — We have called the body 
a house in which the soul dwells. But, as it has the power 
of motion, it is something more than a house. It is a 
movable dwelling. We can walk and run, swing our arms, 
move our eyes, fingers, and toes. All these motions are 
made by means of the muscles. 

2. The Muscles. — Take hold of the upper part of the 
arm and move the fore arm back and forth. You will 

feel the curious mo- 
tion of the muscle as 
the joint is moved. 
The word muscle 
means " a little 
mouse," and is sup- 
posed to refer to the 
sensation produced, 
as of a small moving 

a, b, Striped muscular fibers; c, The same more bodv, when the fing- 
highly magnified. , , 

ers are placed over 
a muscle in action. This muscle becomes very large and 
strong in the arm of a blacksmith or of any other per- 
son who uses his arms a great deal. 




Fig. 10.— Muscular Tissue. 



28 



THE MUSCLES. 



3. The Fibers.— The muscles of the body when ex- 
posed to view look like the lean meat of beef. Lean 







Fig. 11.— A, Biceps muscle of the arm; B, C, Its tendons. 

meat of any kind is only bundles of muscles. Under the 
microscope we see that muscles are composed of fleshy 





A B 

Fig 12 shows the muscles and tendons of the hand ; A showing the palm, B the 
back of the hand. These numerous muscles and tendons form a very com- 
plicated piece of mechanism, and help to give to the hand its marvelous 
dexterity and flexibility. 

strings (Fig. 10) called fi-hers. These are made of still 
finer fibers called fi-bril-lce, which are marked by stripes 



THE MUSCLES. 



29 



or lines. Hence tbej are called striped muscles. These 
markings cannot be seen without the aid of a microscope. 

4. Tendons. — When we bend our arms we feel some- 
thing like a cord at the joint. This cord is called a tendon 
(Fig. 11), and connects the muscle with the bone, so that 
when the muscle is drawn up the bone also is drawn up. 
We can feel the tendons in our elbows and knees when we 
move our muscles ; and if we put the fingers of one hand 
on the wrist of the other, and then open and shut the 
hand, we can feel the cords or tendons just below the 
skin (Fig. 12). We find more of them about the joints, 
particularly the wrist and ankle joints. The muscles 
in the front part of the thigh unite 
to form a single and very powerful 
tendon. This tendon incloses a small 
bone called the knee-pan, of which we 
spoke in the last chapter, and which 
increases the power and also protects 
the knee-joint. 

5. Tendon of Achilles. — The larg- 
est tendon in the body is that which 
goes into the heel and is called the 
tendon of Achilles (Fig. 13), after a 
Greek hero of that name. The story 
is that the water of the mythical river L4| 
Styx was said by the ancients to cause 
any person who bathed in it to be in- FlG - *3.— lower portion 

1/1 of the Leg. 

vulnerable ; that is, he could not be 
wounded. When Achilles was a baby, his mother, wish- 
ing to prevent his early death, held him by the heel and 




30 



THE MUSCLES. 




Fig. 14.— The Muscles. 



THE MUSCLES. 31 

dipped him into the river. The heel she held him by 
was not wet by the water, and it was in that place he re- 
ceived his death-w r ound. 

G. Contraction of the Muscles. — When we bend our 
arms, as boys do when they "try their muscle,' 5 as they 
say, we feel the arm " swell out." This is because the 
muscle contracts in length, and grows thicker. 

7. Two Kinds of Muscles. — There is no muscle that 
does not move some part of our bodies. Muscles are 
divided into two classes : voluntary and involuntary. 
The voluntary muscles are used when we wish or u will " 
to move a part of the body, as our hands or feet. Vol- 
untary action depends on the brain. 

8. Involuntary Muscles. — The involuntary motions, 
like the beating of the heart, or the breathing, do not 
depend on the brain. The muscles that control them act 
when we are asleep or when the mind is at rest, as well as 
when we are awake and active. If these muscles were 
dependent on the will, we should die as soon as we 
fell asleep. How unhappy we should be if, in order to 
live, we had to think all the time about the beating of 
our hearts, or of our breathing! And w T hat terror we 
should be in, lest we should fall asleep and forget to 
breathe ! 

9. Exercise. — To keep our bodies in health we must 
take exercise, but not too much or at the wrong time. 
Violent exercise continued too long does harm instead of 
good. We may by this means get large muscles at the 
expense of health and strength. 

10. When to Exercise.— We should not take much 



32 



THE MUSCLES. 



exercise before breakfast. The best time for exercise is 
two hours after eating. Out-door exercise is the most 
beneficial. Children love to run and jump, and it is a 
good thing for them if they do not carry it to excess, like 
the little girl who tried to jump the rope longer than any 
of her companions, and fell dead. 

11. How to Exercise. — Walking rapidly is a good ex- 
ercise also, as all the muscles are then used ; but walking 




Fig. 15. 



slowly, or " poking" along, as w r e call it, does very little 
good. Children ought to enjoy their play, and enter into 
it with all their hearts in order to get the full benefit of 
the exercise they are taking. Rowing, climbing, skating, 
and swimming are all good and healthy exercises ; in short, 
any open-air exercise that will interest us and divert our 
minds, if it is not too violent, w T ill be the best for us. 



THE MUSCLES. 33 

12. Gymnastics. — Gymnastic exercises, as with dumb- 
bells, clubs, and swinging by the hands from cross pieces 
of w T ood, if practiced carefully and not too many minutes 
at a time, are also good exercises. One of the simplest 
arrangements for strengthening the muscles of the back 
is one that any child can put up. Screw two hooks into 
the wall or door-post, a little distance apart ; to them 
fasten two India-rubber cords with wooden handles (Fig. 
15). Pull the cords with the right hand, or the left hand, 
or with both hands at once. Another way of exercising 
is to screw into the floor a hook to which are attached two 
elastic cords with handles, the cords being so short that 
you must stoop to reach them. Pull the cords up as far 
as you can, and let them go back slowly as far as they 
will go, so that you must stoop again. This exercise may 
be continued for several minutes with great benefit. 

Young folks love to arrange these things for themselves. 



34 



THE MUSCLES. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. How is our body moved? ..... 

2. What are muscles? . . . . 

3. How must we use them to make them strong? 

4. What are tendons? How can we feel them? 

5. What is the largest tendon? and where is it? 

6. Tell the story of Achilles. .... 

7. What can you tell about the muscles in the front part of the 

thigh? What bone do they inclose? 

8. What makes the arm swell out when it is bent? 

9. Into how many classes are muscles divided ? 

10. What are the voluntary muscles? 

11. On what does their action depend? 

12. Do the involuntary muscles depend on the will? 

13. Under which class do breathing and the beating of our 

hearts come? ...... 

14. Could we do anything else if we had to think about them? 

15. Why must we exercise? .... 

16. What is the best time for exercise? 

17. Is it best to take very violent exercise? 

18. What can you say about walking? 

19. What other exercises are good for us? 

20. What can you say about gymnastic exercises? 

21. What about too violent exercise? 



27 
27 
27 
29 
29 
29 

29 
31 
31 
31 
31 
31 

31 
31 
31 
32 
32 
32 
32 
33 
33 



CHAPTEE IV. 

The Skix. 

1. Nature of the Skin. — The skin is the outer cover- 
ing of the body. It is thin, soft, and elastic, and, though 
constantly wearing, is constantly renewed. There are 
two layers which form the skin. The outer layer is 
called the cuticle, or scarf-skin ; the inner layer is the 
cutis, or true skin. 

2. The Scarf-skin. — The scarf-skin is formed by layers 
of little flakes or scales, which are constantly drying and 
falling off as other layers form, and this keeps the skin 
soft. What we call " dandruff," which appears like dust 
in the hair, is nothing but these worn-out flakes. There 
is no feeling in the scarf-skin. If we run a pin or a 
needle under it, as children often do, we do not feel any 
pain. 

3. Where the Scarf skin is Thickest. — The scarf- 
skin becomes thicker and harder over those parts of the 
body which are most used, as the soles of the feet 
and the palms of the hands. When persons use their 
hands to do hard work, like digging in the ground, lay- 
ing brick, or cutting wood, the scarf-skin becomes very 
thick, or " horny," as we say. 



36 THE SKIN. 

4. Worn-out Skin. — If we take any garment that has 
been worn next the skin, during the day, and shake it, 
something will fall from it in very small scales that looks 
like dust. This is the scarf-skin, which has been worn 
out and has fallen off, leaving the new skin in its place. 
Snakes also shed their skins, but all in one piece. They 
crawl out of them, leaving them in the woods or fields, 
where boys sometimes find them. 

5. The True Skin. — The true skin lies beneath the 
scarf-skin. It is very sensitive and well supplied with 
blood-vessels. "If we prick the finger or cut deeply into 
the cutis, or true skin, the blood comes, and we feel pain. 
If the cutis is destroyed by a burn or deep cut, a scar is 
made which will last all our lives. 

6. The Nails. — The nails grow out from the skin near 
the ends of the fingers and toes, and serve to protect 
them. Below the skin which covers the lower part of 
the nail is the root. The nail, if lost, will grow again in 
a short time, if the root is not injured. We can see how 
rapidly the nails grow by marking one near the root. 
Little by little the mark will advance until it reaches the 
end of the finger-nail. 

7. Care of the Nails. — We should never bite the nails, 
as it injures the sense of touch and gives to the ends of 
the fingers an ugly shape, .Trim the nails with scissors, 
but not too closely. Never scrape them with anything 
hard, as it will injure the polish. Push the skin back 
carefully about the lower part, near the root, with some- 
thing blunt. This will prevent hang-nails which we 
sometimes find so troublesome. 



THE SKIN. 



37 




8. The Hair. — The hair (Fig 16), like the nails, grows 
out of the skin. Each 
hair grows from a little 
sac or pocket in the true 
skin. This sac is filled 
with oily matter, which 
keeps the hair moist and q 
glossy. To keep the scalp 
clean, the hair should be 
well brushed, and occa- 
sionally washed. 

9. The Color of the 
Hair. — The color of the 
hair is given to it by col- 
oring matter with which 

little SaCS in the layer of 1,2 & The skin forming tte hair s^ 

«/ Sebaceous glands. 5. T 

the true skin are filled. 

When these sacs begin to 

dry up, as when people grow old, or from some other 

cause, the hair turns gray. Sometimes a sudden fright 

or a great sorrow has been known to turn the hair white 

in a few hours. 

10. Perspiration, or Sweat. — Our skin is full of little 
holes called pores, each of which is the opening of a tube 
called a sweat-gland (Fig. 17). These tubes are about a 
tenth of an inch long, and there are so many of them, 
that if all the sweat-glands of the body could be joined 
into one tube, it would be over three miles long. 

11. Use of Sweat-glands. — Of what use are these sweat- 
glands ? There is a good deal of matter in our bodies 



Fig. 16. 
a, b. The Root of a Hair, highly magni- 
fied. 



glands. 5. The hair sac. 
c. Transverse Section of a Hair highly 

MAGNIFIED. 



38 



THE SKIN. 



that lias been used up and must be got rid of. Much of 
it is carried off in the form of vapor, which we cannot 
see. This is called insensible perspiration. That which 
shows in drops on the face and body is called sensible 
perspiration. About two pints of moisture come through 
these little pores every day. 

12. Effect of Closing Sweat-glands.— When the pores 
are closed, as has been sometimes done by covering the 
skin of animals with a coating of varnish, death will 

take place. At the corona- 
tion of one of the Popes, 
about two hundred years 
ago, a little boy who was 
to act the part of an angel 
was covered from head to 
foot with a coating of gold- 
leaf. He soon became 
sick, and although every 
remedy was tried, except 
removing the gold-foil, he 
died in a few hours. 
Smallpox is a very fatal 
disease among the Ameri- 
can Indians, and it is supposed to be so because they 
cover their bodies with paint and bear's grease, which 
close the pores of the skin and stop the perspiration. 

13. Bathing. — Our health depends very much on keep- 
ing the skin clean. The little pores, or drain-pipes, which 
carry off matter that is injurious to the body, must not 
be stopped up. Suppose that the drain -pipes which 




Fig. 17. -Showing a Hair and Section 
of Skin with Sweat-gland, highly 
magnified. 



THE SKIN. 39 

carry off the dirty water and other impurities from our 
houses should be closed, so that nothing could escape ; 
what a dreadful state our houses would be in, and how 
soon we should be sick ! It is even more important for 
us to keep the skin clean and the pores open by frequent 
bathing. 

14. The Sponge-bath. — When we first get up in the 
morning, a bath in cold water is very refreshing. If a 
bath-tub is not convenient, a basin of water and a sponge 
will answer the purpose. After a cold bath, brisk rub- 
bing is necessary to get the body warm. Besides the 
impurities thrown off from our bodies by perspiration, 
the skin, as we have seen, is constantly wearing out and 
rubbing off. 

15. Effect of Bathing. — The skin comes off in such 
small scales that we can hardly see it, but bathing helps 
to remove it. We notice this when we bathe in hot 
water and rub the body hard. The dead skin, which is 
softened, rubs off in little rolls. If we look at the cold 
water we have used without soap, and then at the hot 
water we have used with soap, we can readily see which 
will remove the dirt most thoroughly. Did you ever 
notice how your pet birds enjoy a bath, even in the very 
small dishes put into their cages ? They lie down in the 
water, and throw it on to their backs, that they may get 
wet all over. After a rain the birds get into the water 
that is in the hollows of the streets or yards and wet 
themselves thoroughly. When that is done they are 
ready to arrange their feathers. Boys and girls would 
do well to imitate the example of the birds and bathe 



40 THE SKIN. 

themselves well before they dress. Fine clothes ought 
never to cover an unclean body. 

16. "The Three Greatest Physicians." — When one of 
the most distinguished physicians of Paris lay on his 
death-bed, the doctors who were attending him were ex- 
pressing their deep regret that he was so soon to die. 
" Gentlemen," he said, " do not regret me. I leave behind 
me three of the greatest physicians." On their urging 
him to give the names, each one thinking that his own 
name might be among them, he briefly added, "Water, 
exercise, and diet." No epidemic can resist clean houses, 
clean air, and clean water. 

17. Clean Clothes. — It will be seen, from what has been 
said about perspiration and the skin, that our clothes must 
be clean as well as our bodies. The waste matter that is 
constantly thrown off gets into the clothing that is w r orn 
next the skin ; and if our clothes are not changed fre- 
quently, they will become unpleasant to those about us. 
We shall feel uncomfortable ourselves, although w r e may 
not know why. 

18. Pleasure in Cleanliness. — After traveling all day 
or all night in a railroad car, the best thing we can do, to 
rest and refresh ourselves, is to take a bath, and put on 
clean clothes. It is even more refreshing than food. 
White clothes worn next the skin are better than those 
that are colored, as the w T hite ones show the dirt and we 
are more likely to have them washed. Colored clothes worn 
next the skin should be washed as often as white ones. 

19. Danger in TJncleanliness. — The Bible is very par- 
ticular to lay down rules for cleanliness ; Moses gives 






THE SKIN. 41 

laws concerning it to the Israelites. David writes of 
clean hands and a pure heart. Washing the feet of a 
guest, and washing the hands before eating, were rules 
that were strictly observed in the time of Christ. Mr. 
Charles Kingsley says that when the civilization of Egypt, 
Greece, and Kome faded, the world passed through the 
dark ages of mental and physical barbarism. For a 
thousand years there was not a man or woman in Europe 
that ever took a bath. No wonder that the terrible epi- 
demics we have read of swept off the people by thousands. 

20. The Sick-bed. — Clean clothes and clean bed-linen 
are very refreshing to the sick. The clothing becomes 
soiled by w^hat is thrown off the body, and clean linen 
gives the patient a feeling of rest and comfort that he 
can get in no other way. Clean clothes, with plenty of 
pure air and sunlight, are often the best medicines. We 
should never sleep at night in the clothes w T e have worn 
during the day. Beds and bedclothes should be exposed 
daily, if possible, to light and air. 

21. Change of Clothing. — Our clothing should always 
be thick enough to keep our bodies warm. Flannels 
should be worn next the skin to keep us from taking cold. 
It is far easier and better to prevent a cold than to cure 
one, as any person who has tried it knows. Never allow 
wet or damp shoes, stockings, or skirts to dry while on 
you. Get home as soon as possible and put on warm and 
dry ones. Also rub the skin thoroughly until a glow is 
produced. Outside wraps should, if possible, be removed 
whenever we go into a warm room to remain, and should 
be put on again only when we are ready to go into the 
air. We cannot be too careful about these things. 



42 THE SKIN. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What is the skin ? Describe it. 

2. How many layers has it ? 

3. What is the name of the outer layer ? 

4. How is it formed? Is there any feeling in it ? . 

5. What makes it thick and hard ? . 

6. - If you cut your finger why do you feel pain and draw blood 

7. How do you know that you shed your skin ? 

8. How do snakes shed their skins? 

9. What is the cutis ? What happens if you injure it ? 

10. Describe the nails. Where is the root ? 

11. How should you care for your nails ? 

12. How does your hair grow ? .... 

13. What is the use of the hair-sac ? . 

14. What gives the hair its color ? 

15. What causes the hair to turn gray ? 

16. What are the pores of the skin ? 

17. If these sweat glands were joined together lengthwise, how 

long would the tube be ? 

18. Of what use are these glands ? 

19. What is insensible perspiration ? . 

20. What is sensible perspiration ? 

21. How much moisture comes through the pores of the skin 

daily ? . 

22. When the pores are closed what happens ? . 

23. Tell the story of the boy angel. .... 

24. Why is small pox so fatal among Indians ? . 

25. Why is it important to keep the skin clean ? 

26. Is a cold bath good for you? Why? 

27. Is it necessary to change your clothes often ? Why? 

28. What does the Bible say about cleanliness ? . 

29. What can you say about clean bed clothes? 

30. Should you wear the same clothes next your skin day 

and night ? Why not ? . 

31. Should you wear wet shoes and clothes ? 



CHAPTEE V. 
Food and Drink. 

1. WHY WE Need Food. — During life our bodies are 
constantly wearing out. We run, play, talk, and walk. 
These movements, as well as many others, wear out the 
body. Yet we may feel and look as well to-day as we 
did yesterday, perhaps better. We grow T tall and strong, 
yet do not feel tired and worn out. What is the reason 
for this? What have we been doing besides playing and 
w r orking ? We have been eating our three meals every 
day, and this food, together with the air we breathe, makes 
up for the waste in our bodies. The bones, muscle, brain, 
and other parts of the body get from the food w^e eat 
what each needs to keep it in good working order. 

2. Hunger. — We all know that if we go without food 
for a longer time than usual, w r e first feel hungry, then 
faint and weak ; and if we can get neither food nor drink 
for a long time we shall die of starvation. It is said that 
a person can live only about seven days without food and 
drink, but about twenty if he has water alone, although 
there are cases spoken of where men have lived without 
either food or drink a much longer time. 

3. Quantity of Food. — The quantity of food that a 



44 FOOD AND DRINK. 

person needs to sustain life depends on his age, and also 
on the kind of life he leads. Those who are very active 
and live much in the open air require more food than 
those who sit while they are working or who study a 
great deal. Children generally require more food than 
grown persons, as they need not only to repair the waste 
of their bodies, but to supply materials for their growth. 
A healthy man needs every day about six pounds of food 
and water. Those who live in cold climates need more 
food than the inhabitants of hot climates, because food 
keeps the body warm. As persons get old, they have 
less appetite, and the repairs do not take place as they 
did in earlier life. Hence aged persons waste away, be- 
come thin, and have a wrinkled look. We sometimes 
hear it said that a person has died of old age. That is, 
his food did not nourish his body sufficiently to keep him 
alive. 

4. Water. — Strange as it may seem to some of us, 
water is the most important article of food. We can live 
much longer without solid food than without water. 
Why is this? Because about two-thirds of all the matter 
in our bodies is water. It is found everywhere, even in 
the bones and teeth. Water helps to change our food 
into blood by dissolving or melting it in the stomach, as 
we melt sugar in water. 

5. Water in Fruits. — Water comprises a large part of 
our fruits and vegetables. Therefore, if we can get 
juicy fruits we can do very well for a long time without 
water. We lose a great deal of water every day (nearly 
two quarts) through the skin, the lungs, and kidneys, of 









FOOD AND DRINK. 45 

which we shall learn more. This waste must of course 
be supplied, and this is why we need so much water or 
watery food every day. 

6. Pure Water. — It is very important to have our 
drinking-water pure. If it is not, the dirt and impure 
matter that it contains will injure us. Rain-water is the 
purest water in nature; but even that, in falling through 
the air, catches the particles of dust that are constantly 
carried up from the ground into the air, and brings them 
down again. 

7. Well-water. — Well-water that is sparkling is usu- 
ally the most impure water we have, though persons 
generally think it is the best. It takes up from the 
ground gases made from decaying vegetable or animal 
matter, and these gases give to it the beautiful sparkle. 
Spring-water is much better than well-water, unless the 
well is far away from or very much higher than barns or 
out- buildings, from which impurities are constantly soak- 
ing into the ground, and are thus carried to the water in 
the wells. If there is any doubt about the purity of 
drinking-water, it is best to boil it. In that way the im- 
purities become harmless. Distilled water can be had in 
large cities and is very pure. Good filters will take im- 
purities from the water, and make even muddy water 
quite clear. 

8. Common Salt. — Salt is a common article of food, and 
is used by all nations and in all climates. AVhen it is ob- 
tained with difficulty, it will bring almost any price. On 
the gold coast of Africa, where salt is scarce, a handful 
of it will buy one or two slaves. The lower animals as 



46 jtood and drink. 

well as man love it. Farmers know that it is good for 
their cows and sheep, and feed it to them. If it is taken 
away from them, the hide grows rough and the hair falls 
out. Without it they cannot digest their food well, and 
often starve to death. Wild animals will go for it a long 
distance to the salt-licks or salt-springs. 

9. Vegetables. — Vegetables contain salts of potash, 
which we need to keep the blood pure. Sailors and 
other persons who cannot get fresh vegetables for a long 
time suffer from a dreadful disease called scurvy. When 
a long voyage is to be made to countries where there are 
no fresh fruits or vegetables to be had (like the voyage 
of Dr. Kane to the Arctic regions), a good many onions 
and potatoes are taken, and are very useful in keeping 
off the disease. In one of Dr. Kane's reports he said 
that he had just had two potatoes grated to give to a man 
who was very ill with scurvy. We need salts of lime to 
make our bones hard and strong, and this we get from 
meat, milk, and bread. 

10. IRON. — Iron helps to make good blood and to give 
to it its bright-red color. Iron is found in many of the 
foods we eat. When persons get very pale, it is a sign 
that their blood does not contain iron enough. It is 
often given in some form by physicians as a medicine. 

11. Flesh-producers— Eggs. — Eggs are an excellent 
article of diet. The egg is two-thirds water, the rest is 
albumen and fat. The fat is in the yolk, and gives it its 
yellow color. The white of an egg is nearly all albumen 
and water. Soft-boiled eggs are more easily digested 
than those that are hard-boiled or fried. 









FOOD AND DRINK. 47 

12. MEAT and Milk. — Animal food or meat has a great 
deal of albumen and fat. Beef and mutton are better for 
food than veal or pork. There is considerable fat in 
milk, as we see when we remember that butter is made 
from it. Milk is the simplest, and for many persons the 
best, article of food. No other single thing will sustain 
life so long. It has been called the " model food." 

13. Fats.— Fats or oils are the great heat -producers. 
AVe all know how quickly fat burns when put on the 
fire ; this is a chemical process, and it is a similar process 
which causes heat when our blood comes in contact with 
the fatty food we eat. Fat burns in our bodies very 
much as it does in the fire, only not so fast, and is really 
fuel food, or food to warm us. Some of you may not 
like fat, but you can learn to eat it and in time become 
very fond of it. 

14. Climate and Food. — People who live in cold cli- 
mates eat a great deal of fat in order to make heat for 
their bodies, so that they can bear the intense cold. The 
Esquimau eats every day ten or fifteen pounds of blub- 
ber, which is the fat of whales, and the children drink oil 
and eat tallow-candles w T ith as much relish as our children 
eat ice-cream or candy. As persons get old, their bodies 
do not produce as much heat as when they were young, 
and, although they may be wrapped in flannels, they will 
still be cold. A bottle of hot water or a hot brick or 
iron is sometimes necessary in order to produce warmth. 

15. Sugars and Starches.— Sugars and starches are also 
heat-producers. They possess a good deal of carbon, 
which is known in another form as charcoal. This car- 



48 



FOOD AND DRINK. 




bon unites with the oxygen of the blood and produces 
heat. There is some sugar in wheat, and a good deal 

in honey, milk, and the 
sweet fruits, such as 
grapes, pears, peaches, 
and cherries. Sugar is 
very easily digested if not 
taken in excess. Starch 
is found in wheat, corn, 
and all other kinds of 
grain, as well as in pota- 
toes, arrowroot, and sago. 

Fig. 18. Granules of Potato Starch, Starch must be changed 

MAGNIFIED. • , i j • ■• 

into sugar by digestion 
before it can be useful in nourishing the body. The 
saliva, the fluid formed by the glands of the mouth, 
changes the starch into sugar, thus making good food. 

16. Albumen, Fat, and Sugar.— Unripe fruits contain 
starch which, during the process of ripening, is turned 
into sugar. Such fruits are indigestible when eaten 
raw or uncooked. Children often make themselves ill 
by eating green apples or peaches and other unripe 
fruit. Albumen, fat, and sugar are all necessary to 
sustain life. An animal can be starved to death if we 
feed him for a long time on nothing but the white of 
eggs, or butter or sugar. But mix these together and 
the animal will live and thrive. Bread made from wheat 
flour contains nearly everything, except fat, that is 
necessary to keep us alive. The butter gives the fat, so 
that bread and butter make an almost perfect food. 



FOOD AND DRINK. 49 

The locusts and wild honey eaten by John the Baptist 
contain the three elements also. 

17. Tea and Coffee. — Tea and coffee are stimulants 
rather than food, and if not used in too large quantities 
seldom do harm to grown people. They should never be 
used by any one to take the place of real food. Women 
who work hard often eat very little, but drink a great 
deal of strong tea. This habit causes indigestion and loss 
of strength, and if long continued will ruin the health. 
Boys and girls should never drink tea or coffee. They 
do not need stimulants. Pure water and milk are better 
for them than anything else they can drink. 

18. Alcohol. — When the juice is first pressed out of 
apples it is sweet to the taste and will do us no harm. If 
it stands for a few days where it is warm, it begins to 
ferment or " work," as we say, and loses its sweet taste. 
If we put new cider into bottles, cork the bottles tightly, 
and let them stand some time, we find, when the corks 
are drawn, that a gas escapes with a pop and causes the 
cider to sparkle and foam. This is called carbonic-acid 
gas. The sugar in the apples has changed into carbonic 
acid and also into alcohol. 

19. Fermentation. — Corn, wheat, barley, and other 
grains, if kept warm and moist, are changed into alcohol 
in the same maimer as the apples. This process of chang- 
ing is called fermentation. By heating the fermented 
liquor the alcohol is driven off in the form of vaj)or. 
This vapor is cooled and makes a strong liquor. 

20. From What Alcohol is Made. — Alcohol is made 
from whiskey, gin, rum, etc. ; whiskey, from corn and 



50 FOOD AND DRINK. 

rye ; gin, from barley and rye. Rum is made from mo- 
lasses. If people begin to drink these things they grow 
to like them, and a thirst is created for them which 
causes drunkenness. You have all seen men drunk and 
know how they look and act. Do you want to be like 
them ? If not, never touch intoxicating drinks. Phy- 
sicians sometimes give them to sick persons as medicine. 
Taken in that way they sometimes do good, just as other 
medicines may help to cure you when you are sick. 

21. Alcoholic Drinks. — Wine, whiskey, brandy, beer, 
ale, and porter contain alcohol. Alcohol takes up a 
great deal of water. Your body also requires a large 
quantity of water, and when alcohol is taken into the 
stomach it mixes with the water and creates thirst rather 
than relieves it. Some alcoholic drinks appear to quench 
the thirst, but it is because they contain a great deal of 
water. How much better it is to take water in its pure 
state ! 

22. Alcohol Weakens. — Many persons think that 
when they have hard w T ork to do they will feel stronger 
and better able to accomplish it by using alcoholic drinks. 
We find, however, by experiments which have often been 
made, that this is not the case. The feeling of strength 
which is given by the alcohol lasts only for a short 
time, when more is required. The more a man drinks 
the more he wants, until his stomach is inflamed, its walls 
are thickened, and the circulation of the blood is de- 
ranged. His mind is weakened ; he cannot do his work 
w r ell ; his hands tremble, and his body refuses to do his 
will. If, instead of spending money for whiskey, men 



FOOD AND DRINK. 51 

would be satisfied to buy good food, would quench their 
thirst with water, and use tea and coffee, which are slight 
stimulants, they would be better able to work and far 
more healthy and happy. 

23. Does Alcohol Produce Heat ? — Men who are ac- 
customed to alcoholic drinks feel the cold more than 
those who do not use them. The soldiers who served in 
Napoleon's campaign in Russia found that they could 
bear the intense cold better without alcohol than with it. 
The British soldiers who served in the recent war in the 
Soudan endured hardships in that hot country better 
without the use of alcohol in any form. Men who have 
spent much time in the Arctic regions have found that 
the use of alcohol unfitted them to resist the intense cold. 
They were obliged, like the natives of those regions, to 
eat plenty of fat and avoid alcohol. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Why do we need food? . . . . .43 

2. How long can a person live without food and drink? . 43 

3. How long if he has water alone? . . . .43 

4. On what does the quantity of food we need depend? . 44 

5. Why do children need more food than grown persons? . 44 

6. Why do old people need little food ? ... 44 

7. How much food does a healthy man need daily? . . 44 

8. Why do people in cold climates require more food than peo- 

ple in warm climates? .... 44 

9. Why does water support life longer than food ? . . 44 

10. What effect does water have upon food? ... 44 

11. How much water passes off our bodies daily? . . 44 

12. Which is the purest water in nature? ... 45 

13. Is " sparkling water" pure? Why not? . . . 45 

14. How does spring water compare with well water? . 45 

15. How may impure water be purified? . . . .45 

16. Is salt necessary to our comfort and health? . , 45 



52 FOOD AND DRINK. 

17. Where is salt very valuable? . . . . .45 

18. What is the effect upon animals if they are deprived of salt? 46 

19. What salts do vegetables contain ? ... 46 

20. What disease do sailors have who cannot get fresh vegetables? 46 

21. What salts do milk and bread furnish? . . .46 

22. What effect does iron have in the stomach? . . 46 

23. Of what is the egg composed? . . . .46 

24. How should eggs be cooked to be easily digested? . 46 

25. What kinds of meat are best for food ? . . .47 

26. What is the best article of food? . ... 47 

27. What food produces most heat? . . . .47 

28. Of what is fat composed? ..... 47 

29. How does fat make heat? . . . . .47 

30. Why are old people cold? ..... 47 

31. What people eat most fat? Why? . . . .47 

32. How much fat does the Esquimau eat? . . . 47 

33. What can you tell about their children? . . .47 

34. Why do sugar and starch produce heat? ... 47 

35. In what articles of food is starch found? . . .48 

36. How is starch changed into sugar? ... 48 

37. What three things are necessary to sustain life? . . 48 

38. What makes bread and butter good food? . . 48 

39. Are tea and coffee good for us? . . . .48 

40. Should they take the place of food? ... 49 

41. What effect does too much tea drinking have? . .49 

42. Should boys and girls drink tea or coffee? Why? . 49 

43. What causes cider to foam? . . . . .49 

44. What changes the sweet juice into alcohol? . . 49 

45. How is alcohol made from grain? . . . .49 

46. What good does alcohol do? What harm? Give examples. 49 

47. Why does alcohol seem to quench thirst? . . 50 

48. Does alcohol help men to bear cold? Give examples. . 51 

49. What article of food is the best to be used in cold climates? 51 

50. Are persons who work hard benefited by ale, beer, or 

whiskey? ...... 51 

51. Should you drink any of these things? . . .51 






CHAPTEE VI. 



Digestion. 

1. Why We Eat. — In the last chapter we learned about 
different kinds of food and drink, — what kinds are good 
for us, and what kinds are not. We eat meat, bread, 
butter, milk, and vegetables to nourish the body. These 
things do not look much 
like our bodies, do they ? 
How, then, are they all so 
wonderfully turned into 
flesh, bones, blood, and 
muscles? We call the 
process by which this 
change is made digestion. 
Digestion takes place in 
the stomach and intes- 
tines, where the food is 
softened and is made fit 
to be taken into the blood 
to furnish nourishment 
for the body. 

2. Mastication, or 
Chewing. — As soon as the 
food is taken into the mouth it is cut into very small 
pieces by the teeth. In chewing, the movements are 
made by the lower jaw, the upper jaw having no motion. 




Ftg. 19.— Section of a Tooth. 

a, Enamel: b. Cavity: c c, Roots; d, Body 

of the Tooth. 



54 



DIGESTION. 



3. The Teeth.— (Figs. 19 and 20.) The teeth are hard, 
white, bone-like bodies, held in place by roots running 
deeply into the jaw. The exposed part, or "crown," is 




Fig. 20.— Section of the Jaws— Right Side. 

V, A. N, Veins, Arteries, and Nerves of the Teeth. The root of one tooth in 
each jaw is cut vertically to show the cavity and the blood-vessels, etc., within 
it. 1 to 8, Permanent Teeth. 

protected by a thin covering of enamel which looks like 
ivory. It is the hardest substance in the body and is 
capable of striking fire with steel. The middle of each 



DIGESTION. 



55 



tooth is hollow, containing blood-vessels and nerves, 
which enter through a very small opening at the root 
(Fig. 19). 

4. Number of Teeth. — There are two sets of teeth. 
Those of the early part of childhood are called the milk- 







Fig. 21.— Section of the Jaw. 
1', 2', 3', 4', 5', the Milk-teeth; 1" to 8", the Germs of the Permanent Set. 

teeth. They are twenty in number and small. At six 
or eight years of age, when the jaw grows larger, the 
milk-teeth begin to fall out to make room for the second 
set (Fig. 21). There are thirty-two teeth in the perma- 
nent set, an equal number in each jaw. 

5. Kinds of Teeth. — The front teeth are small and 
sharp for cutting the food. They are called incisors. 
They are eight in all, two on each side of each jaw. 



56 DIGESTION. 

These teeth are well shown in gnawing-animals, like rab- 
bits, squirrels, and rats. The canines, also called the eye 
and the stomach teeth, stand next, one on each side of the 
jaw. They resemble the long pointed tusks of the dog. 
The bicuspids are next in order, four in each jaw. Be- 
hind them are the regular molars, or grinders, six in each 
jaw. They do the hardest work, crushing or grinding 
the food. The last molars are called the wisdom- 
teeth, because they do not usually appear until after a 
person is twenty. 

6. Care of Teeth. — The teeth should be brushed after 
eating to remove the food that has adhered to them. 
The enamel, if once destroyed, is never formed again, and 
the teeth are likely to decay. On this account we should 
be careful to avoid biting hard substances that will break 
the enamel. Children often crack nuts with their teeth. 
This should never be done. 

7. The Saliva.— When we are hungry and see or 

smell anything nice 
to eat, a watery fluid 
comes into the 
mouth, or, as we say, 
the " mouth waters." 
This fluid, or saliva, 
comes from little 
spongy organs called 
the salivary glands, 
six in number, situ- 

F». 22.-STRUCTXTKE OF A SALIVARY GLAND. ^ ^ ^ ^^ 

by little tubes (Fig. 22). They resemble bunches of 




DIGESTION. 57 

grapes with tubes for stems and stalks. The flow from 
these glands is at all times sufficient to keep the mouth 
moist; but when we are eating, the saliva pours forth 
freely. 

8. Use of Saliva. — Saliva moistens the food so that it 
can be easily sw T allowed. By dissolving substances, like 
sugar and salt, it gives us their peculiar taste. Saliva has 
also the power of changing starch into sugar which, after 
it has been thus changed, enters the stomach, where it is 
quickly dissolved and taken up by the blood. If you 
will hold a little arrowroot, which is almost pure starch, 
in your mouth for a few moments, it will lose its starchy 
taste and become sweet. The saliva has acted upon the 
starch and changed it into sugar. 

9. The Gullet. — After the food is properly chewed it 
passes down into the stomach through a narrow tube 
about nine inches in length, called the food-pipe, or 
gullet, which begins in the back part of the mouth. 
There is another pipe just in front of the gullet called 
the windpipe. This extends to the lungs, and through 
it we breathe. 

10. How Food is Swallowed.— How does it happen 
that the food goes down the right tube ? There is a little 
contrivance called the epiglottis at the top of the windpipe. 
When we are about to swallow, this shuts down like a 
trap-door, and makes a bridge over which the food passes 
down the gullet into the stomach. When the food has 
passed over, the epiglottis opens again for us to breathe. 
Sometimes it happens that it does not close quickly 
enough, and a little bit of food goes down the " wrong 



58 



DIGESTION. 



way," as we say. Violent coughing usually will bring it 
up again. If the substance is hard, like a coin or button, 

children sometimes choke to 
death. Taking choking children 
by the heels and shaking them 
will sometimes bring out the 
substance again. 

11. The Stomach.— The stom- 
ach is a hollow pear-shaped bag 
(Fig. 22), holding from three 
pints to two quarts. It has two 
openings : the one through 
which the food enters and 
where the gullet ends is called 
the cardiac, or heart orifice, 
because it is near the heart ; 
the other, through which the 
food goes out and into the in- 
testines, is called the pylorus, 
or " gate-keeper." The pylorus 
guards the entrance into the in- 
testines, and permits only such 
articles of food to pass out as 
have been properly acted upon 
in the stomach. Things, like 
coins or buttons, that are not 




food, are allowed to 



be- 



4, cbi.\j ttnv u vu v\j pass, 

Fig. 23.— Alimentary Canal— in- ~ ,, , « .« 

eluding Gullet, Stomach, Large Cause they Can be 01 no USe II 
and Small Intestines. 

retained. 
12. The Gastric Juice.— As soon as the food gets into 



DIGESTION. 59 

the stomach, an acid fluid, clear and without color, flows 
out, drop by drop, from millions of little tubes in its 
walls. This fluid is called the gastric juice, and contains 
a substance called pepsin, which helps us to digest our 
food. The quantity of gastric juice used for this pur- 
pose, at each meal, is not less than three or four pints. 

13. Action of the Gastric Juice.— There is also a con- 
stant churning motion caused by the contraction of the 
muscles of the stomach, which mixes the food thoroughly 
with the gastric juice. This juice acts on the albumens, 
which are contained in meat, eggs, and in general all 
animal substances, but has very little effect on starchy 
food. That part of the food which is digested in the 
stomach is at once taken up by the blood-vessels in the 
walls of the stomach, and the undigested part, called 
chyme, passes out into the intestines. The chyme con- 
tains all the fat, and also some of the starchy matters 
that have to be further digested in the intestines. 

14. Action of the Stomach.— If we could see all this 
wonderful action which is going on in the stomach, how 
interesting it would be to watch it ! On account of an 
accident which happened, some years ago, to a Canadian 
named Alexis St. Martin, doctors have been able to see 
this process. The man had been shot in the side and 
an opening, which never closed, was made in his stomach. 
The opening was about an inch in diameter, and through 
it the doctors could see how digestion went on, how long 
a time was required to digest his food, and what things 
were digested soonest. When he ate things that were 
not good for him, the inside of his stomach looked un- 



60 



DIGESTION. 



usually red, and could not do its work well. It was also 
found that about two hours after an ordinary meal his 
stomach was empty. You may be sure this man was a 
great curiosity to the doctors, as well as to other persons 
who saw him. 

15. The Intestines. — The intestines are a continuation 
of the stomach and consist of a fleshy tube about twenty- 
five feet long (Fig. 24). The first twenty feet of this 
tube, called the small intestines, is about an inch and a 

half in diameter ; the 



other five feet, called 
the large intestine, is 
a continuation of the 
same tube, though 
larger round. To get 
all this into the small 
space it occupies in 
the abdomen, it is 
folded together a good 
many times, as we see 
in the figure. 

16. Food in the In- 
testines. — As soon as 
the food enters the 
intestines it excites 
the flow of a new 
digestive fluid which 
enters through a small 




Fig. 24.— Section of Chest and Abdomen. 

A, Heart. E, Gall-bladder. 

B, The Lungs. F, Stomach. 

C, Diaphragm. G, Small Intestines. 

D, The Liver. H, Large Intestine. 



tube below the stomach. This fluid is formed by the 
union of two fluids, the Hie and the pancreatic juice. 



DIGESTION. 



61 



The bile is secreted by the liver, which is on the right 
side, in the upper part of the abdomen (Fig. 24), and 
is stored in the gall-bladder, a little bag attached to the 
under side of the liver. Its color is a greenish yellow, 
and it has a very bitter taste. 

17. Bile and Pancreatic Juice.— The chief use of bile 
is to digest the fatty 
parts of the food up- 
on which the gastric 
juice does not act. If 
you will ask the cook, 
she will show you 
the liver of a chicken 
with the gall-bladder b-^— 
attached ; she is careful 
not to break the gall, as 
it will give the meat a 
bitter taste. The pan- 
creatic juice comes 
from the pancreas, a f — j 
gland situated behind 
the stomach (Fig. 25). 
You may already know 
it by the name of 
" sweetbread," as the 

butchers Call it. By A, Food-pipe or Gullet. E, Kidneys. 

» n f ., ,t B, Heart. F, Large Intestine. 

means ot the bile, the c, stomach. g, Liver. 

D, The Spleen. H, Pancreas. 

pancreatic juice, and a i. small intestines. 

fluid formed in the intestines, called the intestinal juice, 

the undissolved parts of the food we have eaten are 




Fig. 25.— Chest and Abdomen— Back View. 



62 



DIGESTION. 



changed in the intestines into a milky-white fluid called 
chyle, and are thus made ready to be taken into the blood. 

18. How the Blood Takes Up Chyle.— This is done in 
two ways : by the blood-vessels, and by the lacteals 
(Fig. 25). The blood-vessels of the stomach absorb a 
good deal of the fluid ; and the small intestines, also hav- 
ing blood-vessels, absorb more of it. The inside of the 
intestines is covered all over with millions of short 
thread-like bodies called villi, which give it the appear- 
ance and smoothness of velvet. 

19. The Lacteals.— In each of these villi is a network 
of fine blood-vessels and a tube called a lacteal (Fig. 26), so 

called from its milky- 
white appearance. The 
lacteals dip down into 
the intestines and take 
up the fatty matters 
from the chyle. The 
lacteals all unite to 
form one tube called 
B the thoracic duct, 
which passes upward 
through the chest, or 
thorax, and empties 
into a vein just below 
the left collar-bone. 
When this tube be- 
comes obstructed, the 
food does little good, 
as is shown in those men who are exhibited about the 




- A 



D B 

Fig. 26.— The Lacteals. 
A, Small Intestines. B, Lacteals. 
C, Thoracic Duct. D, Absorbents. 

E, Blood-vessel. 



DIGESTION. 63 

country under the name of living skeletons. The indi- 
gestible part of the food passes into the large intestine, 
through which it is expelled from the body. 

20. What to Eat, — We should eat those things that 
are nourishing and that, at the same time, can easily be 
digested. Fresh food, except the flesh of animals just 
killed, and new or hot bread, is more rapidly digested 
than that which is stale. Vegetable food is less stimu- 
lating than animal food, and on that account is better for 
children. Beef and mutton are more easily digested 
than veal and pork. Rich pastry, cake, candy, nuts, and 
raisins, if eaten at all, should be taken at our regular 
meals and in small quantities. Children are very apt to 
eat such things between meals, and when lunch or dinner 
time comes, they have no appetite and no relish for 
plain, well-cooked food. 

21. The Best Diet. — The simplest diet is always the 
best. Bread and milk, or oatmeal and milk, eggs, and 
ripe fruits are easily digested. Some persons are made 
sick by eating things that to others are harmless. Some, 
it is said, cannot come near a table on which there is any 
cheese ; to others lobsters are almost poisonous, and 
strawberries to many are more indigestible than any other 
fruit. Children should not be compelled to eat food 
that they dislike. A child with a good, healthy appetite 
will be likely to select food that is good for him. 

22. How Much Should We Eat ? — The quantity of food 
we require depends upon the age and occupation of the 
person and the amount of exercise taken. Every move- 
ment causes a waste of the tissues of the body. The 



64 DIGESTION. 

greater the amount of exercise, the greater the waste and 
the more food is needed to repair the waste. Those who 
lead active lives in the open air, as farmers and other 
laboring-men, need more food than those who work in- 
doors, and either stand or sit while their hands or brains 
are employed. Children who are growing rapidly need 
food, not only to make up for the natural waste, but to 
furnish material for the rapid growth of bones and 
muscles. 

23. Effects of Eating Too Much. — We should be 
careful not to eat too much. It is better to stop 
eating before we are fully satisfied than to overload the 
stomach. If we get into the habit of eating too much or 
too rich food, we shall suffer from indigestion. The 
skin will become dark and muddy, instead of being a 
clear red and white, as it should be if our digestion is 
good. There will be ugly pimples on the face, and the 
breath will be offensive. Old persons do not need so 
much food as the young, nor do they relish their food so 
much. 

24. When to Eat. — Three meals a day, from four to six 
hours apart, should be eaten. We should not eat be- 
tween meals. The stomach needs rest as much as the 
other organs of the body ; and if it does not get it, diges- 
tion will not be well performed. If we are very tired, it 
is better to rest before eating. Avoid severe exercise 
immediately after a full meal, as it is likely to stop di- 
gestion. Men who are accustomed to drive horses or to 
work them hard understand this. The horses must be 
given a little food, or must be driven slowly until their 



DIGESTION. 65 

food is digested. It is better not to eat just before going 
to bed. When we are asleep digestion goes on slowly. 
Children often injure their health by eating too hastily or 
by eating very little breakfast, because they are afraid of 
being late for school. Of course they are hungry before 
noon-time, and cake, candy, or pickles are bought to sat- 
isfy the craving for food. 

25. How to Eat. — We should eat slowly and chew our 
food thoroughly. As a nation, we do not take time 
enough to eat. Children eat quickly because they want 
to play ; men and women, because business or pleasure 
hurries them. If the food is well chewed, the saliva and 
gastric juice will act more readily. It is not well to drink 
too much when eating. Ice- water is not good for diges- 
tion. Even a wine-glassful cools the stomach so much that 
half an hour is needed after drinking it for the stomach 
to recover its natural warmth. Mustard, pepper, highly 
spiced sauces, and pickles are likely to injure the digest- 
ive organs if used frequently. 

26. Gum-chewing. — Young people often indulge them- 
selves in chewing gum. They chew it almost as con- 
stantly as men chew tobacco. This habit is injurious to 
the glands connected with digestion. It increases the 
flow of the saliva, which ought to be used only in dis- 
solving our food. It also excites all the glands con- 
nected w T ith the nourishment of the body, without pro- 
viding food for them to digest. Thus, you see that it is 
not only a disagreeable but a hurtful habit. 

27. Effect of Alcohol on Digestion. — Alcoholic 
drinks taken into the stomach irritate it and hinder di- 



66 DIGESTION. 

gestion. Taken in large quantities they may almost stop 
digestion, and cause a painful form of dyspepsia, de- 
stroying all appetite for food. You will find that drunk- 
ards eat very little, but are always thirsty. This is be- 
cause they have taken alcohol, which absorbs the w 7 ater 
from the body and creates a thirst for more. The liver 
is more likely than most of the other organs to be- 
come diseased by the use of alcohol. It becomes in- 
flamed and enlarged at first, and afterwards decreases 
in size, becomes hard and roughened, and is then 
called the hob-nailed liver, or the drunkard's liver. In 
some countries geese are fed with food soaked in alco- 
hol to make the large livers for " goose-liver" pies which 
by many are thought to be a great delicacy. The effect 
of alcohol on the kidneys is very much like its effect 
upon the liver. The kidneys become diseased so that 
they cannot remove impurities from the blood, and as a 
consequence the whole system is poisoned. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What is digestion? ...... 53 

2. Where is the food digested? .... 

3. Should we chew our food well? Why? 

4. What is the saliva? Where does it come from? 

5. What are its uses? ..... 

6. After the food is chewed, where does it go? 

7. What two pipes or tubes are near together? . 

8. What contrivance sends the food down the right tube ? . 

9. Explain how it is done. .... 

10. What is the gullet? Tell all you know about it? 

11. What would happen if this little trap-door did not do its 

duty? ....... 

12. What must be done if coins or buttons get into the wind- 

pipe? ....... 5! 

13. Describe the stomach and its uses .... 5! 



53 
53 
56 

57 
57 

57 
57 
57 

57 



; 



DIGESTION. 



67 



14. How many openings has it ? What are the}'? . . 58 

15. Of what use is the pylorus? . . . . .58 

16. Is it treating the stomach well not to chew the food properly? 

Why not? ...... 58 

17. What is the gastric juice? Where does it come from? . 59 

18. How much is used each meal for digestion? . . 59 

19. What causes the churning motion? Of what use is the 

motion? . . . . . . .59 

20. What becomes of the food that is not digested in the 

stomach? ...... 59 

21. Has any one ever seen this process? . . . .59 

22. Tell the story of Alexis St. Martin. ... 59 

23. What are the intestines? . ... . .60 

24. What is the size of the small intestine? Of the large? . 60 

25. Where are they situated? . . . . . 60 

26. What two fluids is the food mixed with in the intestines? 60 

27. Where is the liver situated? . . . . .61 

28. Where is the bile stored? What is its color and taste? . 61 

29. How is the food changed to chyle? . . . .61 

30. What is the office of the blood-vessels of the stomach? . 62 

31. Of the blood-vessels of the small intestines? . . .62 

32. What are the villi? What tubes do they contain? . 62 

33. What is the duty of these tubes? . . . .62 

34. With what tube do they unite? .... 62 

35. Where does this tube empty? . . . .62 

36. What things are most easily digested? ... 63 

37. Does animal or vegetable food digest more rapidly? . 63 

38. Why is ice water not good for digestion? . . 63 

39. Is it best to eat a variety of food at each meal? . . 63 

40. Is there any rule as to the amount of food we should eat? 63 

41. Upon what does the amount depend? . . .63 

42. Why do children need more food than adults? . 64 

43. Should we eat between meals? Why not? . . .64 

44. Should we eat much candy, cake, or other sweets? . 64 

45. What kind of food is best? . . . . .64 

46. What is a safe rule for eating? .... 64 

47. What effect will indigestion have on the complexion? . 64 

48. Do the old need as much food as the young? . . 64 

49. How often should we eat ? . . . . 65 

50. Why should we not eat between meals or when tired? 65 

51. Why should we not eat before going to bed? . . 65 

52. What can you tell about the habit of chewing gum? . 65 



68 



THE BLOOD, AND ITS CIRCULATION. 



CHAPTER VII. 

The Blood, a^d its Circulation. 



1. The Blood. — When we cut ourselves, or prick our 
fingers with a pin, and wound the true skin, the blood 
comes. If the injury is deep and wide, the blood runs 
very fast, and we cannot always stop it. A little boy to 
whom this was told, said, " Yes, I can ; I can always stop 
it, for it gets hard on the outside." That hardness is the 
thing that stops the blood from running, as you will see 
presently ; but even that little boy would find that the 
blood might flow so fast that it had no time to harden. 
He could not stop the bleeding unless he knew exactly 
how to do it. 

2. The Corpuscles. — The blood, as it first flows out, 
looks red ; but if we put a drop of it under a microscope 

(which is a glass that will 
make things look many times 
larger than they usually ap- 
pear), we shall see that it is a 
clear fluid, in which a great 
many little bodies called cor- 
jpus-cles float. These little 
bodies give it a red color (Fig. 
, 27). We can understand this, 

HIGHLY MAGNIFIED. J f ^ ^^ ft ^ ^^ f U ]J ()f 

water and then drop into the glass as many red beads as 




AND ITS CIRCULATION. 69 

it will hold without having the water overflow. If we 
stand a little way .off, the water will look red, because the 
beads give it that color. 

3. Color of the Blood. — If you should fill the water 
of a brook with little red fishes, very ^ 
small, as small and crowded together as f5) C 
closely as grains of sand, the water would 

look red, would it not % Now you know 

why these little bodies make the blood //JJ ~ 

look red. They are so small that we can ^ "^ 

hardly get any idea of their size. In a 

single drop of blood that might hang on 

the point of a needle there are a million 

of these little bodies. Beside the red 

corpuscles, you will see others that are 

w T hite. They are a little larger than the fig. 28. 

~~A ~„~r, a, Oval Corpuscles of 

red ones. a fowl. 5, corpu- 

„ tt - rrr , . scles of a frog, c, 

4. Use of the Corpuscles. — "what Those of a shark. 

The five small ones 

use are these little bodies in the blood ?" j£ the upper part of 

the figure represent 

They have the power of taking up gases. ^^man fou? u ISln- 
We breathe oxygen into our lungs, and d"* 11 ™ 168 - 
breathe carbonic-acid gas (a kind of dead air) out of them. 
These little bodies take up the oxygen we inhale, and 
carry it all over the body ; but the carbonic-acid gas, that 
would hurt us if it should remain long in the body, they 
take to the lungs, which expel it. We shall learn more 
about this in the next chapter which tells why and how 
we breathe. 

5. Coagulation, or Clot. — If we put blood that has 
just been taken from the body into a dish, and let it 




70 THE BLOOD, AND ITS CIRCULATION. 



stand a few hours, it is separated into two parts. The 
clot, which is thick like jelly, sinks to the bottom ; the 
other part, a clear straw-colored fluid called serum, covers 
the clot. It is this thickening, or coagulation, of the 
blood that often saves us from bleeding to death, because 
it stops the mouths of the blood-vessels that have been cut 
or hurt, so that no more blood can come from them. When 
you cut yourselves, your parents or the doctor ties up the 
wound, so that the blood may thicken and thus stop run- 
ning. This coagulation is what the little boy referred to 
when he said it " got hard on the outside." 

6. Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood.— 
The blood is never still while we are alive. It starts 
from the heart, and by a great number of tubes, large 
and small, is carried all over the body. How this is done 
we shall see presently. The circulation of the blood has 
been understood only since 1619. The man who dis- 
covered it was an Englishman, whose name was William 
Harvey. He was a physician to the King of England. 
He was persecuted and derided at first, but he lived 
nearly forty years after the discovery, long enough to 
see it accepted by every one, and to know that he was 
honored as a benefactor of mankind. Before Harvey's 
time the belief was that air instead of blood circulated 
in the arteries of which we shall learn. 

7. The Heart. — The heart is the wonderful engine 
by which the circulation of the blood is carried on. It is 
in the middle of the chest, between the two lungs, and is 
placed a little to the left side, where we can easily feel it 
beat. It is not much larger than a man's fist. By its 






THE BLOOD, AKD ITS CIRCULATION. 



71 



constant beating, which is as regular as the ticking of a 

clock, the blood is 

kept in motion. It 

never tires, and stops 

beating only when 

we die. (Fig. 29.) 

8. Chambers of 
the Heart. — The 
heart contains four 
chambers. It is first 
divided down the 
middle, from the top 
to the bottom, so that 
no blood can pass 
from one side of the 
heart to the other. 
Each of these halves 
is then divided 
across, so that there 
are two lower and 
two upper cham- 
bers. The upper ones are called the right and left 
auricles, the lower ones the right and left ventricles. 
Each chamber has a little valve, or trap-door, which opens 
to let the blood through, and closes to prevent its return. 
All these actions of the heart, which are contractions and 
expansions, are done without our thinking about them. 
If each heart-beat depended upon our remembering it, 
we should never be able to attend to anything else, and 
should die if we should go to sleep. 




Fig. 29.— The Heart and Large Vessels. 
A. Right Ventricle. D, Left Auricle. 

E, Aorta. 

F, Pulmonary Artery. 



B, Left Ventricle. 

C, Right Auricle. 



72 THE BLOOD, AND ITS CIRCULATION. 

9. The Arteries. — The tubes by which the blood is 
carried from the heart to all parts of the body are callec 
arteries. The arteries spring from the heart by a single 
hollow tube, which, like the trunk of a tree, throws of 
many branches. These branches are divided again anc 
again, and constantly become smaller and smaller, until 
the finest of them are so very minute that w x e cannot see 
them without a microscope. 

10. The Veins. — The tubes by which the blood returns 
to the heart are the veins. At first they are not larger 
than the smallest artery of which we have spoken, but, 
uniting together as they advance, they grow^ larger, re- 
minding us of the way in which the tiny rootlets of a 
plant unite to form the root, or the little streams flow to- 
gether in order to form the mighty river. The large 
veins commonly lie side by side with the arteries serving 
the same part of the body, but the currents within the 
veins and arteries flow in opposite directions. 

11. The Capillaries. — There are also other tiny tubes, 
a great deal flner than the finest hair, which connect the 
veins and arteries, forming a net-w T ork between them. 
These are called capillaries on account of their being so 
small and hair-like. Camilla means a hair. The capilla- 
ries carry the blood from the arteries into the small veins, 
these veins carry it into two of the largest veins of the 
body that empty into the right auricle of the heart. 
The arterial blood in the capillaries furnishes food to all 
parts of the body. 

12. Use of Capillaries. — The different organs of the 
body being constantly used, need to be repaired, just as 



THE BLOOD, AND ITS CIRCULATION. 



73 



our shoes and our clothes need repairs when worn with 
use. So these tiny little tubes, that run through each 
organ, select from the blood what is needed to repair that 
organ. Fat, muscles, bone, and the heart itself are all 
fed by means of these little tubes. Through the capil- 
laries also the impure blood is carried to the veins, and 
by them is taken back to the heart to be purified. This 
is best done during sleep, as the body is then quiet and 
the circulation is slower and more regular than when we 
are awake. 

13. The Circulation of the Blood. — The circulation 
of the blood is a very curious and interesting thing. Let 
ns see if we can un- 
derstand it. When 
the blood has passed 
through all the arter- 
ies of the body, and 
whatever is needed to 
nourish the different 
organs has been taken 
out of it, its color 
changes from a bright 
red to a dark blue. It 
is now impure, and, 
as it cannot nourish 
the body, it must be 
purified. How is this 
done ? 




B, Left Ventricle. 

C. Right Auricle. 

14. The Blood in D > Left Auricle - 



Fig. 30.— Section of the Heart. 
A. Right Ventricle. E, F. Inlets to the Ventricles. 



G. Pulmonary Arteiy. 
H. Aorta. 



the Heart. — The blood is carried bv the veins into the 



74 THE BLOOD, AND ITS CIRCULATION. 

upper chamber of the right side of the heart, which, you 
have been told, is the right auricle. This chamber con- 
tracts, and sends the blood down through the little trap- 
door into the right ventricle (Fig. 30). This ventricle con- 
tracts and sends the blood along the great artery through 
the lungs, where it is made pure and red again by the oxy- 
gen it gets there, and by the impure gases it throws out. 
When this is done, the blood is sent out from the lungs 
into the left auricle, from which, through another little 
trap-door, it passes into the left ventricle. This contracts 
and hurries the blood through the large and small arte- 
ries to the ends of the fingers and toes. The little capil- 
laries then take it into the small veins, which carry it into 
the larger ones, by which it is taken back into the heart, 
to begin again the same journey. Look carefully at the 
pictures you have before you and study them well, so 
that you can understand and trace the circulation of the 
blood through your body. 

15. Appearance of the Blood. — If your teacher or any 
of your friends have a microscope, you will be very much 
interested in looking through it at the circulation of the 
blood in the web, or thin part, of a frog's foot (Figs. 31, 32). 
Under the microscope you will see very plainly one 
set of vessels, the arteries, with the blood rushing through 
them from the heart, as the water rushes along a rapidly 
running river; then another set, the veins, with the blood 
flowing slowly in the opposite direction, as the water 
creeps along the bed of a sluggish stream ; and between 
the arteries and the veins you can see the capillaries, 
which form a net-work with walls so fine that you can 



THE BLOOD, AND ITS CIRCULATION. 



75 



see through them. Through these capillaries the tiny 
corpuscles can pass only in " single file." 

16. The Blood in the Capillaries. — The motion of the 
blood in the capillaries is very curious. It hurries along 
in one direction, then stops, and turns in the opposite di- 
rection, and sometimes these little tubes are nearly empty. 
How long do you think it takes all the blood in the body 
to go from the heart, through the lungs, back to the heart, 
and from that through the whole body, to the ends of the 




Fig. 31.— Web op a Frog's Foot, 
slightly magnified. 



Fig. 32.— Margin of Frog's Web, 
magnified 30 diameters. 



fingers and toes, until it gets back to the heart again ? 
It takes about two minutes to make the complete round. 
This it does without stopping, day after day, through 
your entire life, and does it also without your thinking 
or troubling yourselves about it. Is not this a wonderful 
thing? And are not these bodies of ours, that are so 
curious and so wonderfully made, worth studying about, 
so that you may learn to take care of them, and not abuse 



76 THE BLOOD, AND ITS CIRCULATION, 






and neglect them, as many children do for want of 
knowledge ? 

17. The Work of the Blood. — We can compare the 
arteries, and what they do for our bodies, to the water 
supply of a great city. The heart is like the pum ping- 
station at the reservoir ; and the arteries, which carry the 
pure blood out of it to supply our bodies, are like the 
large pipes which carry water down from the reservoir. 
The small arteries are like the smaller water-pipes, which 
go into all our houses in order that each house may have 
all the water it needs. So the smaller arteries carry the 
blood to all parts of our bodies, that each part may be 
supplied. 

18. Impure Blood. — When the water has been used for 
washing, cooking and other things, and is no longer fit for 
use, another set of pipes, the drain pipes, carry this im- 
pure water from each house through the sewer pipes to 
the river, where it mingles with the water there. The 
foul matter sinks to the bottom, and the pure water rises 
in the form of mist or vapor into the clouds, to fall again 
in the form of rain or snow upon the earth, and is again 
carried into the reservoir to be used. The veins do the 
same thing for the impure blood of the body. When 
all that is wanted for use is taken from the blood, and it 
needs to be purified, the little capillaries carry it to the 
veins ; the veins, like the sewer pipes, take this impure 
blood back to the heart, and it is sent to the lungs to be 
purified and made ready for use again. 

19. How to Promote Good Circulation.— We should 
exercise regularly. When cold, a run or a brisk walk 



THE BLOOD, AND ITS CIRCULATION. 77 

will warm us, and will cause our blood to circulate well. 
A bath in the morning, followed by a hard rubbing with 
a coarse towel, is also good. Avoid violent and long 
continued exercise. It will do more harm than good. 
Tight clothing is injurious. It presses upon the blood 
vessels that are near the surface of our bodies, thus 
preventing a free circulation of the blood. Tight collars, 
tight belts, and tight shoes will also injure us, for the 
same reason. Our clothes should be warm, light, and not 
too tight. Tight clothes and tight lacing cause head- 
aches, cold hands and feet, and many other aches and 
pains which we could prevent if we knew what produced 
them. 

20. The Pulse. — If we should attach a hose-pipe to the 
mouth of a common pump, we would notice every time 
we pressed down on the handle of the pump that the 
water came out of the pipe in a jerky manner. If the 
pipe be rubber, and we press it, we can feel a throbbing 
of the water passing through. In the same way, every 
time our heart beats, there is a wave-like motion sent 
through the arteries, and this motion is called the pulse. 
The arteries sometimes come near the surface, as in the 
wrist. By putting the finger upon the wrist we can 
count the beats or pulsations. In this way, as well as 
some others, a doctor tells whether we are sick or well, 
and whether our blood goes through the arteries too 
quickly or too slowly for perfect health. How 7 can he do 
this ? Because he knows how often in a minute the pulse 
of a healthy person ought to beat. If he finds that your 
pulse-beats are not right, he tries to find the cause. The 



78 THE BLOOD, A1STD ITS CIRCULATION. 

pulse can be felt wherever an artery comes near the sur 
face of the body. When a person is very weak his pulse 
can hardly be felt. In fevers it is often rapid and 
irregular. 

21. Effect of Alcohol upon the Heart. — Soon after 
a person has taken alcohol into his stomach, his face gets 
red, he feels warm within and the heart beats more rap- 
idly than usual. "We say that the alcohol acts as a 
stimulant upon him. It affects his heart, as a whip or 
spur affects a horse. It causes the heart extra work, to 
expel the alcohol from the system ; so there is a loss, no 
a gain, of strength. The alcohol has weakened the nerves 
w T hich control the flow of blood in the blood-vessels, an 
the heart must w T ork harder to fill them. 

22. Does Alcohol make us Fat. — Alcohol is said t 
make persons fat. The fact is that they become so sleep 
and inactive from drinking, that as a result they become 
fleshy. Alcohol in itself has really no fattening power. 
Alcohol sometimes produces fat in the muscles of the 
body, which makes a person weak instead of strong. The 
blood also undergoes a fatty change, which prevents it 
from nourishing the body. 



THE BLOOD, AND ITS CIRCULATION. 



79 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What happens when we cut our fingers? . 

2. Can you always stop the flow of blood ? Why not ? . 

3. What is the color of good blood? . . . 

4. Why does it look red? Give examples. 

5. How many corpuscles are there in a drop of blood that 

might hang from the point of a fine needle? 

6. x\re there any beside the red corpuscles? 

7. What use are they? What are their uses? 

8. What do we breathe into our lungs? What out? 

9. If you let blood stand in a dish for some time how will it 

look? ....... 

10. What are the two parts called? 

11. What is coagulation? ..... 

12. How does it prevent us from bleeding to death? 

13. Is the blood in a living person ever still? 

14. How long has the circulation of the blood been understood 

15. Who discovered it? Tell something about him? 

16. What is the use of the heart? Where is it situated? 

17. How large is it? What use is its beating? 

18. How many chambers does the heart contain? 

19. Describe the divisions? .... 

20. What are the upper ones called? . 

21. What are the lower ones called? 

22. What is the use of the valve in each chamber? 

23. Do we think about these actions of the heart ? 

24. What are the arteries? 

25. From what do they spring? 

26. Tell about the branches of the tubes? 

27. What are the veins? . 

28. From what do they start? . 

29. What can you tell me about their size? 

30. What are the capillaries? . 

31. What work do they do? 

32. How do they furnish food for the body? 

33. What is the best time for repair of the body? 

34. When the blood has passed through the arteries and the 

nourishment has been taken from it, where does it go? 

35. From the right auricle where is it sent? . 



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THE BLOOD, AND ITS CIRCULATION. 



36. How does it get into the lungs? .... 

37. What takes place there? . 

38. After it leaves the lungs purified, where does it go? De- 

scribe its progress. (See figs.) . . . 

39. When it reaches the fingers and toes, what do the little ca- 

pillaries do with it? . . . 

40. How does it reach the heart again? 

41. How can you see the circulation of the blood in a frog's 

foot? Describe it. ..... 

42. What can you say about the motion of the blood in the capil- 

laries? ...... 

43. How long does it take the blood to go from your heart all 

over your body and back again ? . 

44. Do you ever have to think about it? 

45. To what can you compare the arteries? 

46. See if you can describe the motion. 

47. To what can you compare the veins? . 

48. What do they do with the impure blood? 

49. How must you exercise and how much? 

50. Is bathing a good thing for you? Why? 

51. How will tight clothes injure you? 

52. What is the pulse? ..... 

53. Why does a doctor feel it? . 

54. What effect has alcohol upon the heart? . 

55. Does the effect last long? 

56. Does alcohol make people fat? . 

57. What effect does fat have upon the muscles? 

58. What effect has it upon the blood? 



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RESPIRATION OR BREATHING. 81 



CHAPTEE VIII. 

Respiration or Breathing. 

1. When a person stops breathing we say that he is 
dead. The air we breathe into our lungs is necessary to 
keep us alive. It purifies the blood, as we learned in the 
last chapter, and by our constantly breathing it, our bodies 
are supplied with a very necessary nourishment. Isot 
only men but all the lower animals must breathe in order 
to live. When the horse, cow, and dog breathe we can 
see their sides rise and fall ; and when they have been 
running rapidly in cold weather we can see the moisture 
in the breath as it comes out of their nostrils. They pant 
as we do when we run too fast. 

2. The Breath. — Have you not noticed on cold winter 
mornings how your own breath looks like steam, as it 
comes from your mouth, and have you not held up your 
fingers, when they were stinging with cold, to warm them 
by breathing upon them? The air as we draw it through 
our teeth into our mouths feels cold, but it is warmed by 
its passage through the lungs. That is the reason it feels 
warm to your fingers, as it cornes from your mouth. 
Plants breathe through tiny little holes that are in the 
leaves, but in a different way from animals. You will 
learn all about that when you come to study Botany. 



82 



RESPIRATION OR BREATHING. 



3. The Lungs. — (Fig. 33.) The lungs are the organs 
with which we breathe. There are two of them, one on 
each side of the chest ; which they almost fill. The 
substance of the lungs is soft, elastic, and very much 
like a sponge, and when thrown into the water it will 




Fig. 33.— Organs of the Chest. 

A, Lungs. D, Pulmonary Artery. 

B, Heart. E, Trachea. 



float. If we press upon it with the fingers it sinks down 
but will rise again like a sponge when we take th 
fingers off. We also notice a crackling sound when 
pressure is made upon it. This is caused by the air 
with which it is filled being forced out. 



: 



RESPIRATION OR BREATHING. 



83 



4. The Tubes for tee Passage of the Air.— The long- 
est of these tubes is the windpipe, or trachea, which 
runs along the front of the neck. It is upon the wind- 
pipe that a man presses when he wishes to choke 'an- 
other person to death. Probably you have often pressed 
your fingers upon your windpipe and felt as if you were 





Fig. 34— Larynx, Trachea, and 
Bronchial Tubes. 



Fig. 35.— Diagram and Section of 
the Air-cells. 



choking. If this pressure should be long continued, no 
air could get into the lungs, and we should die. At the 
top of the windpipe is the larynx, a box of cartilage con- 
taining the vocal cords. The front of it is very promi- 
nent in thin persons and it is then spoken of as " Adam's 
Apple." 

5. Bronchial Tubes.— The lower end of the windpipe 
is divided into two parts or branches, one going into 



84 



RESPIRATION OR BREATHING. 



each lung (Fig. 36). These large branches are again 
divided, something like the arteries, into many little 
branches or bronchial tubes, as they are called, which get 
smaller as they go down, until they are as small as the 
finest hair. On the ends of each of these little tubes is 
a cluster of little pouches or " air-cells" (Fig. 35), having 
very thin walls, and the whole is covered with a very 




firm net-work of capillaries, of which we learned in the 
last chapter. When we take in a breath, these cavities 
are filled with air and the chest swells out ; but when the 
air is forced out, the chest falls again. 

6. Vocal Cords — (Fig. 37). At the top of the windpipe, 
or trachea, is the larynx. This, as we have been told, 
is a box of cartilage, in which are the organs of voice, or 



RESPIRATION OR BREATHING. 



85 



vocal cords. These cords are stretched across the box ; as 
the air passes to and from the lungs, they are set in mo- 
tion. This produces the sounds we call the voice. 




Fig. 37.— Section of the Mouth and Throat. 
A, The Tongue. E, Epiglottis. N, Trachea. 



C, Vocal Cord. 



L, Larynx. 



O, (Esophagus. 



7. Epiglottis. — At the top of the windpipe, which 
opens at the back of the mouth, is the cover or trap- door 
we have before spoken of. It is called the epiglottis. 
This opens to let the air pass in and out, and closes when 



86 



RESPIRATION OR BREATHING. 



we swallow our food. Sometimes it fails to shut down 
over the opening, and the food goes down the windpipe, 
instead of the food-pipe, causing us to choke until we 
cough it up again. 

8. How We Breathe. — There are two motions in 
breathing, — inspiration, or draw- 
ing the air into the lungs, and ex- 
piration, or forcing it out again. 
We have learned that the lungs 
are elastic, or easily stretched. 
When the air passes into the 
lungs and tills the air-tubes, the 
elastic tissue of the lungs swells, 
and the chest fills out or ex- 

c pands, as a rubber ball swells out 
when we "blow it up." This 
is inspiration. When the air is 
forced out again through the 
same tubes the chest sinks down. 
This we call expiration. This 
up and down motion is repeated 
with each breath we draw. The 
motion upwards is seen in the 
lifting of the ribs ; the motion 

downwards is not so apparent, as it is caused by a muscle 

called the diaphragm. 

9. The Diaphragm. — This muscle is a thin partition, 
which separates the chest from the abdomen (Fig. 38). 
In its natural position it rises up into the chest like a 
dome. When we breathe the air into the lungs, it con- 




Fig. 38. — Section of the Trunk. 
A, Chest. B, Diaphragm. C, 
Abdomen. 






RESPIRATION OR BREATHING. 87 

tracts until it is flat. As soon as the air is driven out 
of the lungs the diaphragm rises into its dome-like 
position again. These movements go on, without our 
thinking about them, as long as we live. 

10. How Often We Breathe. — We breathe about once 
during every four beats of the heart, or about eighteen 
times a minute. When we walk fast, or when we run, 
the action of the heart is increased, and a larger amount 
of blood is sent to the lungs, so that they have to act 
more rapidly. If they cannot keep up with the action 
of the heart, we are in distress for want of air — " out of 
breath," as we say. Although we are not obliged to think 
in order to breathe, we can, if we "will" to do so, stop 
breathing from fifteen to twenty seconds. If we expel 
all the impure air from our lungs by taking several very 
long breaths, we may even remain for one and a half or 
two minutes without breathing. It would be well to 
remember this. Then, if we are ever compelled to pass 
through a burning building, we may shut the mouth and 
not breathe until we have passed beyond the flames and 
smoke. 

11. Composition of Air. — The air we breathe is com- 
posed of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen. Oxygen is 
powerful and active ; too active for us to breathe, unless 
it is mixed with something else. Xitrogen is weak, and 
cannot alone support life. These gases are so mixed that 
there is four times as much nitrogen as oxygen. That is 
to say, one fifth of common air is oxygen. 

12. Changes in the Air Made by Breathing. — Ani- 
mals confined in a close box or chest, where they cannot 



88 RESPIRATION OR BREATHING. 

get fresh air, will soon die. A lighted candle placed in 
it will soon be put out. Why is this ? Because there is 
not enough oxygen in the air that has been breathed 
once to sustain life. Neither is there enough to keep 
up a flame. Air that has been once breathed is not fit 
to breathe again. The air is changed while in our lungs. 
The oxygen is kept by the blood, and another gas, called 
carbonic-acid gas, that is hurtful to our bodies, is thrown 
out. 

13. Need of Fresh Air. — You have perhaps heard the 
story of the " Black Hole of Calcutta," a small room with 
only two little windows in it, into which a hundred and 
forty-six Englishmen were crowded one hot night by a 
cruel man in India, who had taken them prisoners. 
They struggled and fought with one another to get near 
the windows for fresh air. In the morning only twenty- 
three of the poor men were alive. If a room, like a 
schoolroom or a public building, is filled with people 
and the air that has been breathed is not allowed to get 
out and fresh air to get in, we shall find that people will 
become faint and dizzy and complain of headaches ; and 
yet they do not know why they feel so. Poor persons 
in their small, close rooms in the cities suffer from 
breathing this impure air ; and the children are often 
pale and sickly, when a little fresh air and sunshine would 
make them well again. 

14. Causes of Impure Air. — Stoves and furnaces used 
for heating rooms often cause death by the carbonic-acid 
gas they send out. Where such heaters are used, the 
rooms should have plenty of fresh air. We have some- 



RESPIRATION OR BREATHING. 89 

times noticed what a close, disagreeable odor there is 
when we enter a room in which there are a great many 
persons. It is because fresh air is shut out. The un- 
pleasant odor is caused partly by the animal matter con- 
tained in the moisture that is breathed out of our lungs 
as well as what is thrown off by perspiration. Air 
that is pure has no odor. When sick, we throw off 
with our breath and from our body impurities that often 
cause those who are near us to take the disease, or, as 
we say, to " catch it." For instance, scarlet-fever, small- 
pox, measles, and other diseases w T hich we call contagious 
are given by a person who has them to those who come 
very near him. The better a sick-room is ventilated, 
the less liable are those about the patient to take the 
disease. 

There are many things particularly in and about cities 
that tend to make the air impure. Bone-boiling factories, 
chemical-works, kerosene-works, soap-factories, slaughter- 
houses, and other things of the kind are very injurious 
to health, besides causing unpleasant odors, which make 
it disagreeable for people living near them. 

15. Moisture in the Breath. — On a very cold morning, 
when we are walking fast or running, we notice a vapor, 
like steam, coming from our mouths. A lady's veil or a 
man's moustache will often be covered with this vapor, 
frozen and looking like little particles of ice. The 
window-panes in our rooms, in very cold weather, are 
sometimes covered with the pretty frost-work that chil- 
dren admire. We notice it more when a room has been 
tightly closed during the night. This appearance is 



90 RESPIRATION OR BREATHING. 

caused by the air that is breathed from our lungs. It 
shows that the air we send out from our lungs contains 
water, which was not in the air w T e breathed into them. 
In hot weather we cannot notice this moisture unless we 
breathe upon a looking-glass or some other polished sur- 
face. Then we shall see that the thing we have breathed 
upon is dim, and feels wet to the touch. 

16. Carbon and Oxygen.— If we are all the while 
breathing out carbonic-acid gas, and all the people in all 
the cities and large towns as well as in the country are 
doing the same, how does it happen that there is any pure 
air left for us to breathe ? Remember also that not only 
men, women, and children, but all the lower animals, even 
little birds, fishes, and worms need the oxygen of the air. 
Our fires and lights consume much more. Why has not 
all the oxygen been used up long ago? Where does the 
needed supply come from ? and what becomes of the car- 
bonic-acid gas ? Carbon and oxygen are both useful as 
food for our bodies. Breathed in the form of carbonic- 
acid gas, they are injurious, causing convulsions and even 
death. Sugar in its pure state is good and salt is also 
good if used as they are needed in our food. But if we 
mix them together, and then put the mixture into our 
tea or coffee, or into our soup, we could not drink the one 
nor eat the other. If we could separate them so that 
they could be as they were before they were mixed, they 
would again be useful. 

17. What Plants Breathe.— This separation of the 
carbon from the oxygen is what, the trees, grass, and 
plants are doing with the carbonic-acid gas. They take 









RESPIRATION OR BREATHING. 91 

up the carbon from the impure air and leave the oxygen. 
Carbonic-acid gas contains the true food for the vegetable 
world. The carbon is retained and used. It enters into 
fruits, grains, and eatable roots, while the oxygen is given 
back for the nourishment of the animal w r orld. 

18. How the Air is Purified.— But, we may ask, how 
does all the bad air get from the cities, where there are 
so few trees and plants to use it, into the country, where 
there is enough vegetation to purify it ? We know how 
constantly the air is in motion : sometimes moved gently 
by breezes, and sometimes violently by storms. By this 
movement the impure air of our cities and the pure air 
of country and of ocean are made to mingle much more 
freely than they would if there were a constant calm. 
Then the rain in falling has the power to wash out some 
of the impurities of the atmosphere, which, in the form 
of carbonic-acid gas, become food for plants. This is 
the wonderful plan of our Creator for purifying the air 
and giving to everything He has made exactly what it 
needs. 

19. Ventilation. — We have learned why the air of our 
sleeping-rooms, schoolrooms, and public buildings is often 
impure. Now let us inquire how we can keep the air 
pure in our rooms without danger of our taking cold. 
In the summer this is an easy matter, as the doors and 
windows are almost always open. When our windows 
are of the common sash kind (Fig. 38), a good supply of 
fresh air may be obtained without a draught by placing 
a board about four inches wide under the lower sash. 
The window is thus closed against rain and snow, but 



92 



RESPIRATION OH BKEATHING. 






allows a supply of fresh air to enter between the sashes. 

If we open the windows or doors at opposite sides of the 

room, the bad air will 
be carried off, and 
pure air will take its 
place. If we have 
but one window in 
the room, it is a 
good plan to open it 
at the top as well as 
at the bottom, a little 
way even in very 
cold weather. The 
bad air, so long as it 
is warm, is lighter 
than the pure air 
and rises to the top 
of the room. For 

Fig. 38 -Showing manner of ventilating by in- tWg ^^ j t wi] j 
sertmg strip of wood beneath lower sash of n 

window. out at the top of the 

window, w T hile the pure air, being heavier, comes in at 
the bottom. 

20. Bed-room Ventilation.— We need not be afraid of 
too much fresh air in our sleeping-rooms. Even in cold 
weather we can have clothing enough on our beds to keep 
us warm ; and cold air in our rooms, if it is fresh, is b< 
than bad air. Night air, that so many people are afraid 
of, will not hurt us. We all know that we sleep better, 
when the air is pure at night, and awake feeling rested 
and ready for work again. On the other hand, if we 







: 



RESPIRATION AND BREATHING. 



93 



shut out the pure air, we awake feeling tired, and are pale 
and irritable. The habit of breathing tobacco-smoke 
through the nose injures the delicate membrane of the 
throat and lungs. Cigarette-smoke is particularly hurt- 
ful. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What effect has the air upon the lungs? . 

2. What effect upon the blood? .... 

3. Does anything breathe except persons? What? . 

4. How does your breath look on a cold morning? 

5. You draw in cold air, — why is it warm when it comes from 

your mouth? 

6. Do plants breathe? How? .... 

7. What are the lungs? .... 

8. How many are there and how situated ? 

9. Describe the substance of the lungs? 

10. What is the wind-pipe? .... 

11. If you press upon it, what is the effect? . 

12. What is the larynx? ..... 

13. Could any person be killed by pressing upon his wind-pipe 

Why? ...... 

14. How is the wind-pipe divided in the chest? . 

15. Describe the bronchial tubes. 

16. What are the air cells, and how are they covered? . 

17. How T is the chest affected when they arc filled and when they 

are emptied? ..... 

18. Where is the larynx? Describe it. 

19. What are the vocal chords? 

20. Where is the epiglottis situated ? . . . 

21. What is its use? ..... 

22. If it fails to shut, what happens? 

23. What is inspiration? .... 

24. What is expiration? ..... 

25. When the air passes into the lungs what effect does it h 

upon the air tubes and upon the chest? 

26. How is the chest effected when the air is forced out ? 

27. By what is the upward motion caused? . 

28. By what is the downward motion caused? 

29. What is the diaphragm? .... 



94 



RESPIRATION AND BREATHING. 



30. 
31. 

32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 

46. 

47. 
48. 



50. 
51. 
52. 

53. 
54. 
55. 

56. 
57. 

58. 

59. 

60. 



What is the shape of the diaphragm? 

What is the effect upon its shape of breathing the air into 

the lungs? . . . . . 

When the tubes are filled with air what happens? 
How often do we breathe? * . . . 

How is the action of the heart effected by walking rapidly? 
What makes us " out of breath" ? 
How long can we stop breathing? 
Of what is the air composed? . 
What effect has oxygen upon us? . 
What effect has nitrogen upon us? . 
In what proportion are these gases mixed? 
Is air that we have breathed pure? 
What effect has it upon life? 
Why does impure air destroy life? 
What gas is thrown off when we breathe? 
What effect will a close room, filled with people, have upon 

them? ...... 

Do persons ever suffer for want of pure air ? 

Tell about the Black Hole of Calcutta 

What causes the close odor in a room that is shut and filled 

with people? . . . 

Has pure air any smell? Why not? . 
How can we prevent diseases from being given to others? 
What things make the air about cities impure? 
Is there moisture in the air that is breathed out of your 

lungs? How do you know? . 
Would sugar and salt mixed be of any use? . 
If you could separate them would they be useful? 
What do the trees and plants do with the carbonic acid gas 

we breathe from our lungs? .... 

How does the bad air get from the city to the country? . 
How can we keep the air in our rooms pure? 
How can we keep the air pure in a room where there is but 

one window ? . 
Which is the lighter, pure or impure air? 
Will the air in our sleeping rooms hurt us merely because 

it is cold? ...... 

What harm do alcohol and tobacco do to the throat and 

lungs? ,,,,.,, 



87 
87 

87 
87 
87 
87 
87 
87 



89 
89 



89 
90 
90 

90 
91 

- 

91 



92 



93 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 95 



CHAPTEE IX. 
The Nervous System. 

1. We have been studying about digestion, circulation, 
and respiration, which are common to vegetables, the 
lower animals, and to man. These are called vegetative 

functions. As the body is nourished by the blood which 
circulates to all its parts, giving to each organ what it 
needs, so the trees and plants, by their roots, stems, and 
trunks, convey a fluid called sap through all their parts. 
This sap does for them w^hat the blood does for our 
bodies. In other words, it causes their growth and nour- 
ishes them. Besides this, the leaves, which may be called 
the lungs of the plant, take from the air a gas which is 
hurtful to man, but which is the life of the plant. This 
process is called vegetable respiration. 

2. The Nerves. — We, as well as the lower animals, 
have, in addition to these vegetative functions, another set 
of organs, by which we know and are able to take an ac- 
tive part in what is going on around us. These powers, 
among which are the sense of feeling, the powers of mo- 
tion, and volition, or the ability to " will" to do anything, 
place the animal above the plant, and man above the 
lower animals, because he has these powers in a higher 
degree. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 




Fig. 39.— The Cerebrospinal System. 



THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 97 

3. The Nervous System. — We find that all parts of the 
body are protected from injury by an unseen something 
that warns us of danger. When we come too near the 
fire, or when we are out in the cold too long, we feel pain. 
When a person raises his hand to strike us, we, " by in- 
stinct," as we say, dodge the blow. When we come in 
contact with many other things that would hurt us, this 
unseen agent warns us to avoid them. This agent which 
helps us to avoid danger and so carefully seeks to pro- 
tect every part of our bodies is called the nervous sys- 
tem. The brain, spinal cord, and nerves are (Fig. 39) 
the principal parts of this system which serves the body 
as a complete telegraphic system, the brain being the prin- 
cipal office. We shall see by and by how this is done. 

4. The Brain. — The brain is one of the most impor- 
tant and useful organs in our body. It fills the great 
cavity of the skull ; is egg-shaped, and is divided into 
two parts, — the cerebrum, or large brain, and the cerebel- 
lum, or small brain (Figs. 41 and 42). It is a curious, 
whitish, pulpy-looking substance, marked all over in wavy- 
looking furrows, about an inch deep, looking something 
like a cloth that has been squeezed in the hand. It weighs 
about three pounds, or nearly fifty ounces in a grown per- 
son, although some brains weigh much more. The brains 
of Daniel Webster and Agassiz each weighed fifty-three 
and a half ounces. These are amoDg the largest brains 
of which the weight is known. A large brain is thought 
to be the sign of a great mind ; but the quality, as well as 
the size, must be considered. The brain of an idiot does 

not often weigh more than thirty ounces. 

7 



98 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



5. The Cerebrum (Fig. 40). — The cerebrum, or brain 

proper, fills up the 
top and front of the 
skull, and is very 
much larger than the 
cerebellum, or "lit- 
tle brain." A deep 
groove divides it 
lengthwise into two 
equal parts called 
hemispheres. The 
outside is marked all 
over with winding, 
irregular furrows, as 
has been said. It is 
gray in color, and 

: 




Fig. 40. — Upper Surface of the Cerebrum. 

A, Longitudinal Fissure. 

B, The Hemispheres. 



contains nerve-cell 
as well as a grea 
many blood-vessels. This gray matter, which is about 
fifth of an inch thick, goes down into all the furrows. 
On that account there is much more of it than if it cov- 
ered only the top of the brain as a smooth surface. The 
interior of the brain is composed almost entirely of a 
white substance made up of nerve-fibers (Fig. 41). 

6. The Cerebellum. — The little brain is divided, like 
the cerebrum, into two parts. The surface is composed 
of the gray matter, and the interior of the white matter. 
It is again divided by many ridges which are parallel, or 
side by side with each other, and which go down deeply 
into the white matter, looking somewhat like the trunk 



THE KERVOUS SYSTEM. 



99 




Fig. 41.— Vertical Section of the Brain. 
A, Left Hemisphere of Cerebrum. E, Upper Extremity of the Spinal Cord. 




Fig. 42.— Lower Surface of the Brain. 
The numbers refer to the pairs of nerves. 



100 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



and branches of a tree. The cere- 
bellum is about one eighth the 
size of the large brain (Fig. 43). 
7. The Medulla Oblongata.— 
From the front part of the little 
brain, and from the under part 
of the brain proper, proceed a 
collection of fibers or little cords, 
which are all joined together 
and go into the spinal column. 
This is called the medulla oblon- 
gata (Fig. 43). At the base of 
the brain and above the place 
where the cord enters the spinal 
column are twelve pairs of nerves 
(Fig. 42). These nerves are 
round cords of a glistening white 
appearance, and are well pro- 
tected from injury. When the 
cord enters the spinal column it 
is called the spinal cord, or the 
spinal marrow. It is contained 
in the holes which we have seen 
make a tunnel down the back- 
bone of the skeleton. The gray 
and white matter in the spinal 
cord is the same as the gray and 
fig43.-medulla oblongata, white matter found in the brain, 

A, Cerebrum; B, Cerebellum; 

d, d, spinal Cord. and itg su b s tance is so soft that 

it needs protection along the whole of its course. Ac- 




THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 101 

cordingly we find that the bones are so arranged as to 
shield this substance from injury in the same way as the 
brain is protected by the skull. 

8. Arrangement of Spinal Nerves. — The spinal 
nerves, thirty-one pairs in number (Fig. 39), spring from 
each side of the cord by two roots, an anterior and 
a posterior root. From these spinal nerves other nerves 
branch out, growing smaller and smaller to the most re- 
mote parts of the body. Although where these nerves 
end they are finer than a hair and there are so many of 
them that they never have been counted, it is likely that 
each one goes from its origin in the brain or elsewhere 
directly to the part it is intended to protect, because we 
always locate or feel the pain in the part which has been 
injured. The message is never carried incorrectly. 

9. The Telegraphic System. — Perhaps we shall under- 
stand more clearly how the nerves take messages to the 
brain and back again if our nervous system is compared 
to the telegraphic system. The brain is the principal 
office ; the nerves branching from it to all parts of the 
body are like the wires which go from the main office to 
the stores and houses, to carry messages back and forth. 
These messages are constantly sent by the nerves to the 
brain and back again from all parts of the body. If you 
put your hand too near the fire, or on a hot stove, the 
nerves under the skin tell the brain, and a message at once 
comes back by other nerves to the muscles to take the 
hand away. These messages travel so rapidly that we are 
spared much suffering. We step on a nail. As soon as 
the point touches the foot the nerves telegraph to the 



102 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

brain, and the brain orders the foot off so quickly that it 
is very slightly injured. It sometimes happens that the 
message is not given in time and a sore foot is the result. 

10. Reflex Action. — The spinal cord not only carries 
messages to the brain, but also stops them on the way, 
as messages are stopped at the little telegraph-offices on 
the way to the main office. All along the spinal cord are 
these little offices, which take messages and send back an- 
swers, without consulting the brain. We have seen per- 
sons, when they were asleep, put up their hands to brush 
off flies that were troubling them, and yet not waken. If 
you tickle the feet or body of a person who is asleep he 
moves to get away from the tickling without waking up. 
After the head of a chicken has been cut off, the body 
will jump about for some time. This unconscious action 
is called the reflex action of the cord. 

11. The Uses of Reflex Action. — Keflex action is im- 
portant to us in our sleeping and our waking hours. It 
is our unseen protection, never weary and never needing 
sleep. It watches over us when our brains need rest, 
and keeps us from danger or death. The work of diges- 
tion is constantly going on, though we never think of 
it. Our hearts are beating while we are asleep as well as 
while we are awake ; and we breathe without troubling 
ourselves about it. All these movements are caused by 
reflex action, and our brain is thus saved a vast amount 
of work. If we had to think about all these things, we 
should be soon tired of life, or we should forget them 
and should die. Our brains could have no rest, for we 
could never sleep. We should always have to be on the 
watch to keep our bodies alive. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 103 

12. The Health of the Nervous System. — It is im- 
portant for us to learn bow to take good care of our ner- 
vous system, that we may be strong and healthy, instead 
of sickly and nervous. We very often bear persons 
complain of being nervous. What causes it i It is often 
caused by indigestion. We may eat too mucb, or eat 
tilings that are not good for us. The stomach being unable 
to digest them, the brain either becomes dull and stupid, 
or the person will be cross, or " nervous,' ? as people say. 
A lady said some time ago that it was very easy now to 
excuse persons when they were cross by saying they were 
nervous : but when she was young, people called things by 
their right names, and nervousness was temper. She 
was partly right and partly wrong. If our nerves are 
upset by indigestion, it is very hard to keep our temper. 
We feel cross, and we act as we feel. If we will always 
keep our stomachs in good order, there will be less cause 
for nervousness. 

13. The Brain. — The brain is the thinking organ. It 
needs exercise as well as any other part of the body, and 
we should be just as careful to train it to right habits of 
thinking, as we should be to give good food to the 
stomach. While you are children your parents and 
teachers can advise you what to read, and how you may 
best study the wonders of the world about you. Animals 
and their habits will interest you. The study of plants 
and their uses will delight you. History is both interest- 
ing and useful. 

14. Mental Discipline. — You should not only read 
books that treat upon these subjects, but talk about them 



104 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

with persons who know more than you do. In this way 
you will till your minds with useful knowledge. You 
should also learn to control your tempers, appetites, and 
passions while you are young. Self-control is what 
many grown persons have never learned ; and though you 
may find it hard at first, you will succeed if you are de- 
termined to do so, and in after-life you will be much 
better and happier for it. 

15. The Need for Sleep. — Sleep is very necessary to 
life and health. One of the worst punishments that the 
cruelty of man has invented is death from want of sleep. 
A prisoner who is condemned to die in that way is 
watched night and day by men whose business it is to 
see that he does not get a moment's sleep. Whenever he 
shows any disposition to go to sleep, he is forbidden, un- 
til at last death comes to his relief. While we are awake, 
our muscles, nerves, and brain are constantly active. 
Sleep is therefore needed to give our tired bodies a chance 
to rest and to repair the waste of the tissues. Sleep has 
been called "the image of death." Only the stopping 
of the action of the heart for a short time is needed to 
make it death. 

16. Time to Sleep. — The most natural and for that 
reason the best time for sleep is at night. Then all the 
world is still, and most animals rest. People who are 
obliged to work all night and sleep during the day can- 
not feel as well as those who sleep at night. They look 
tired and worried, instead of being bright and rested. 
The number of hours needed for sleep is not the same 
for all persons. Eight hours for a grown person is the 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 105 

usual number. A man who works with his brain requires 
more rest than one who works with his hands. ]N r apoleon, 
and Frederick the Great slept only about four hours out of 
the twenty-four. Young people need ten or twelve hours' 
sleep, because their bodies are growing so fast, that be- 
sides the time needed to repair the waste, more time is 
required to supply the material for growth. If they sit 
up late, attend parties, and eat late suppers, they can 
never feel fresh and well in the morning, and will grow 
up to be pale and nervous men and women. 

17. Effects of Alcohol on the Nervous System.— 
Alcohol taken into the stomach affects the nerves and 
brain at once. The face is flushed, because the nerves 
have lost the power to control the flow of blood through 
the body. The brain is thus excited, and words come 
very freely, so that some persons, knowing this, often 
take a little wine as a stimulant to enable them to talk 
better in company. If much wine be taken, the speech 
becomes thick and hesitating, the head dizzy ; instead 
of walking they stagger along, and losing at last all con- 
trol over the muscles, fall down and unable to rise, lie 
in a drunken sleep, making themselves objects of dis- 
gust to many, and of pity to not a few. 

18. Alcohol and Habit.— One of the worst results of 
drinking intoxicating liquors is the loss of self-control. 
When one becomes a slave to the habit, he can seldom 
break it off. His self-respect is lost, and if only given 
enough to drink he is easily led into any vice or crime 
which his associates choose. Alcohol is the cause of most 
of the murders and other horrible crimes with the ac- 



106 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

counts of which our daily papers are filled. So long as 
the whiskey trade continues crime will increase. 

19. Delirium Tremens. — Delirium tremens is one of 
the most horrible effects of hard drinking. The person so 
affected fancies he is covered with all sorts of horrible 
creatures. Snakes seem to be crawling over him, and 
reptiles of all kinds torment him, while he strives in vain 
to throw them off. He cries, shrieks, and jumps, to get 
out of their way, begging all who are about him to help 
him. At last he sinks down exhausted, only to begin 
the same struggles again, when the delirium returns. 

20. Inherited Appetite for Alcohol. — The taste for 
alcohol is often inherited, and the drunkard's child may 
have a taste for the poison which has ruined the parent. 
We all ought to be sorry for those who are slaves to this 
vice, and to use every means in our power to reform them. 
Boys often laugh at and torment drunken men, but if 
you are tempted to do it, remember that they were boys 
once, as young and happy as you are, and think what has 
degraded them. They are now what you will be, if you 
indulge the love for drink that has brought them into 
this terrible condition. 

21. Tobacco. — Tobacco is smoked, chewed, and used as 
snuff. In whatever manner it is used, it is hurtful. Most 
persons who use it are injured by it in one way or an- 
other. There is a poison, called nicotine, contained in 
tobacco, and it is this poison which causes nausea, vomit- 
ing, and dizziness when persons first begin to chew or 
smoke. Many a boy who thinks it is manly to smoke 
finds, when he tries it, that he is well punished for his 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 107 

foolishness. Although his first cigar makes him very 

sick, be dares nut go to bis mother or father to complain, 
knowing tbat be has disobeyed them and must rake the 
consequences. 

22. How Tobacco Affects the Heart. — Tobacco often 
affects the action of the heart in grown persons who nse 
it freely. It produces indigestion, and causes tbe bands 

to tremble like tbose of a bard drinker. Is it Dot better 
for boye not to form such a habit than to try to break 
themselves of it when they are suffering from tbe effects 
of tbe poison? Cigarettes are even m<;»re injurious than 
cigars, as when u>iu£r tbem a larger amount of smoke 
is taken to tbe lungs. Snuff-taking is injurious to tbe 
senses of smell and taste, and to tbe voice. 

23. Opium. — Opium is the thickened juice of tbe poppy 
plant of India and is a very important medicine. It re- 
lieves pain and puts to sleep persons who are wakeful or 
suffering. Opium is dangerous in the hands of ignorant 
or careless persons, as too large <:>r too frequent doses 
have often put them into so deep a sleep that they could 
not be wakened — tbe sleep of death. 

24. Opium-eating. — Some persons indulge in opium to 
relieve pain, until they form for it a taste tbat. like tbe 
craving for whiskey, is almost impossible to overcome. 
Such people are called opium-eaters. Although often told 
that if they continue to eat opium death is certain, such 
slaves are they to tbe habit that they will take any means 

.ratify their desire for it. The effort to give up its 
use causes the utmost misery. Promises are broken, and 
<»nly forcible and long-continued restraint will effect a 



108 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

cure. Many men would give all they possess to be able 
to break themselves of the habit, yet the craving for this 
poison is too strong to be resisted. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What are called vegetative functions? . . .95 

2. Compare our bodies to trees and plants. ... 95 

3. How is the sap like the blood? . . . .95 

4. How are the leaves like the lungs? ... 95 

5. What is vegetable respiration? . . . .95 

6. What powers have we that plants have not? . . 95 

7. What is that servant that warns us of danger called? . 97 

8. What are the principal parts of this system? . . 97 

9. Compare it to the telegraphic system. . . .97 

10. Where is the brain situated ? 97 

11. What is its shape? How is it divided? . . .97 

12. How does it look? How much does it weigh ? . . 97 

13. How much did the brains of Daniel Webster and A^as- 

siz weigh? How much does an idiot's brain weigh ? . 97 

14. What is to be considered besides the size? . . 97 

15. What is the cerebrum? - . . . . .98 

16. Into how many parts is it divided? ... 98 

17. How is the outside marked? What is the color? . . 98 

18. What does this gray matter contain? How thick is it? . 98 

19. What is under the gray matter! . . . .98 

20. What is the cerebellum? How is it divided? . . 98 

21. Describe its ridges? How large is it? . . .98 

22. What is the medulla oblongata? .... 100 

23. How many pairs of nerves are there above where the cord 

enters the spinal marrow? .... 100 

24. How do they look? ..... 100 

25. What is the spinal cord? What protects it? . . 100 

26. What is its color? ...... 100 

27. How many pairs of nerves proceed from the spinal cord? 101 

28. How are these connected with other nerves? . . . 101 

29. Why do we feel pain in that part of the body which is hurt? 101 

30. To what can our nervous system be compared? What is 

its principal office? . . . . .101 

31. To what can you compare the wires? . . . 101 

32. How do the nerves prevent accidents? . . . 101 

33. Does every message go to the brain ? , , . 102 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



109 



34. Give examples of action during sleep. . . .102 

35. When the head of a chicken is cut off is the body at once 

still? 102 

36. What is reflex action? ..... 102 

37. How does it protect the body from injury? . . . 102 

38. What can you say of digestion and breathing? . . 102 

39. How does reflex action benefit us? . . .103 

40. What often causes nervousness? .... 103 

41. Are you likely to be pleasant and kind to others when your 

nerves are disturbed by indigestion? 

42. What is the brain? 

43. Does it need exercise? Why? 

44. What is its office? .... 

45. How can you give it good food? 

46. Why should we learn self-control ? 

47. Is sleep necessary to our health ? 

48. What very cruel punishment can you mention ? 

49. Why do we need sleep? 

50. How is sleep like death? . 

51. What is the best time for sleep? Why? 

52. Are people who sleep in the daytime as well as those who 

sleep at night? ..... 

53. How many hours do grown people generally need for sleep 

54. How many hours a day did Napoleon and Frederick the 

Great sleep? ..... 

55. How much time do children need for sleep? 
5.6. What is the effect of sitting up late at night? 

57. Does alcohol taken into the stomach effect the brain? How 

58. What is the effect when a large quantity is taken? 

59. Is it easy to break off from the habit of drinking? 

60. Why is it easy to lead a man into crime who drinks too 

much ? . . . . . . .105 

61. What is delirium tremens? .... 106 

62. How can persons avoid these evils? .... 106 

63. Is the taste for strong drink inherited ? . . . 106 

64. Why should we be sorry for drunkards? . . . 106 

65. Is tobacco hurtful? ..... 106 

66. What is the poison in it? . . . . .106 

67. What effect does it have? ..... 106-7 

68. How does snuff injure one who takes it? . . 107 

69. What is opium? What is its use ? ... 107 

70. What can you say of the habit of opium eating. . . 107 



110 THE FIVE SENSES. 



CHAPTER X. 

The Fite Senses. 

1. We have already learned that the nerves, going from 
the brain to the fingers, toes, and to the surface of the 
body generally, give lis the sense of feeling, or sensation, 
in those parts. If a nerve ending in the skin should be 
cut, so that it could not convey messages to the brain, we 
might be pinched, or pricked with a pin over the point 
served by that nerve without feeling pain. We say that 
we feel with our fingers, we hear with our ears, we taste 
with our tongues ; but the fact is that the organ that per- 
ceives these sensations is the brain. 

2. Sensation. — The sensibility, or feeling, in any parts 
of the body depends upon the number of nerves the part 
contains. The nails, the hair, and the scarf-skin have no 
nerves, so that they may be cut without giving us pain. 
The cutis, or true skin, which is, as we have learned, 
under the scarf-skin, is very sensitive, because it is full of 
nerves ; but the muscles, cartilage, and bone have very 
little feeling. When a surgical operation is performed, 
like the cutting off of a leg or an arm, the most painful 
part of it is the cutting through the cutis, or true skin. 
If any way could be found to destroy the feeling in the 
cutis, the other parts would feel the cutting very little. 
Numbness is sometimes caused by throwing a spray of 
a liquid called ether upon the part to be cut The ether 



THE FIVE SENSES. Ill 

passes off in the form of vapor, so rapidly that it causes 
a feeling of intense cold, and as long as it is used destroys 
the feeling in that part, so that the patient will suffer 
very little, if any, pain from the operation. 

3. The Uses of Pain. — We all know what pain is, for 
we have felt it. Grown persons, as well as boys and girls, 
often get impatient because they have to bear it. Have 
we ever thought that pain, although so hard to bear, has 
its uses ? It acts as a protection to the body. If we 
hold the hand too near the fire, the pain we feel warns us 
to take it away at once. If it were not for the sense of 
pain, the hand might be kept there until it was severely 
burned, and we should not know it. Pain also warns us 
not to eat food that we cannot digest. If we do not heed 
the warning, we deserve to suffer. Persons stupefied by 
drink are often severely burned, or burned to death while 
in a drunken sleep. 

4. Special Senses. — Besides the feeling of pain just 
described, there are other feelings which are subject 
to the will. These are called special senses. They are 
five in number — Touch, Taste, Smell, Sight, and Hear- 
ing. Special organs are furnished for them, as the hands 
for touching, the tongue for tasting, the nose for smell- 
ing, the eye for seeing, and the ear for hearing. No one 
of these organs can do anything but its own work. We 
never think of tasting with our eyes, or smelling with 
our ears. 

5. Touch. — The sense of touch is given to the whole 
surface of the body, but is most delicate in the hands, and 
particularly in the tips of the fingers. If we pass our 
fingers over an object, even if w r e do not see it, we have 



112 THE FIVE SENSES. 

an idea at once of its size, shape, and form, and could tell 
it by the touch at any other time. In the blind this 
sense of touch is often educated, to such a degree that it 
almost takes the place of sight. They can read by pass- 
ing the fingers rapidly over raised letters, and, by feeling 
a face, will know it again, as well as we do by seeing it. 
If you have never seen the letters of the blind, it would 
be an amusement to shut your eyes and try to learn them, 
as the blind do, by feeling them. 

6. Taste. — The tongue is the special organ of taste. 
The back part of the mouth also possesses that sense. 
There are a great many muscles in the tongue, which 
allow it to move in all directions. If you put out your 
own tongue and look at it in the glass, you w T ill see that 
it is rough. This roughness is caused by tiny raised spots 
called pa-pil-lce, which are abundantly supplied with the 
nerves of taste. Some are so small that they can be seen 
only under the microscope, and resemble the papillae in 
the fingers and other parts of the body that have the sense 
of touch. By means of these papillae, the tongue is able 
to taste, to feel, and to know the temperature of anything 
that is taken into the mouth. 

7. Papilla. — By looking at a dog's tongue, we can 
easily see that the papillae are larger, and the tongue 
much rougher than in man. The same is true of horses, 
cows, and other animals. This rough surface enables 
the dog to lick the flesh off a bone which, as the muscles 
of his tongue are strong, he can very easily do. The 
lion also, by licking it w T ith his tongue, can take the skin 
off any animal he has killed. 

8. Tastes in Different Climates.— Taste is partly a 



THE FIVE SENSES. 



113 



matter of education. A child's natural taste is simple. 
As he grows older, and eats with older persons, his taste 
changes, and he begins to like what they eat. Often he 
becomes very fond of the things that were disagreeable 
to him when he -first tasted them. The Esquimaux like 
w T hale-oil and drink a great deal of it, for their climate 
is so cold that fat is needed in large quantities to furnish 
heat for their bodies. The Finns, we are told, w T ill eat a tal- 
low candle with as much relish as if it were a stick of candy. 

Persons who go from our climate to a very cold one 
soon begin to eat and to like the same food as the natives 
themselves enjoy. The Persians are very fond of asa- 
foetida, which we think very disgusting ; and the Chinese 
consider as luxuries many articles of food that w r e never 
think of eating. The sense of taste can be cultivated 
until it is very wonderful, some men being able by the 
taste alone to tell the place from which tea has been 
brought. 

9. The Nose. — The sense of smell is due to the nerves 
that end in the delicate membrane, or internal skin, that 
lines the openings or 
cavities of the nose 
(Fig. 41). The nose is 
formed partly of bone 
and partly of cartilage, 
or gristle, together 
with this covering 
membrane. The up- 
per part of the nose is 

joined to the skull by Fig. 44.— Section of the Right Nasal Cavity. 




nose, 
>leit 

nn«e, 

r i- 

St 



114 THE FIVE SENSES. 

a few small bones. The lower part, or tip of the nose, 
contains several thin pieces of cartilage, which enable 
to bear heavy blows without breaking. Behind the nose, 
in the upper and back part of the mouth, are two cavi- 
ties called the nasal cavities. These have a delicate 
lining called the mucous membrane, which is kept moist 
by a fluid which it, in common with all mucous mem- 
branes, secretes. When we suffer from a cold in the 
head this membrane becomes dry and small, and the sense 
of smell is almost destroyed. 

10. The Sense of Smell. — The sense of smell is more 
acute in some persons than in others. Some notice the 
least unpleasant odor ; others never seem to notice bad 
odors, however offensive they may be. Dogs possess 
the sense of smell in a very high degree, and it can be 
cultivated so as to be very useful. A dog can tell the 
footsteps of his master from those of any other person. 
Give a dog a shoe which a lost child has worn and tell 
him to find the owner. He will smell the shoe, and 
then, with his nose to the ground, will hunt until he 
finds the scent of the footsteps of the child. That being 
found, he will follow the scent for miles until he dig 
covers the child. 

11. Uses of Smell. — Deer and other animals, when thej 
are hunted by dogs, sometimes put their pursuers off the 
scent by going into a stream of water, and following the 
stream for a long distance. They appear to know that 
the hounds will be unable to scent their course in run- 
ning water, and how far they must keep in the stream 
before it is safe to take to the woods again. Smell, like 



ng 

: 



THE FIVE SENSES. 115 

taste, aids us to select proper food and to avoid that 
which is spoiled and unfit to be eaten. It also warns us 
not to breathe gases and vapors that are unfit to be 
taken into the lungs, and which we might breathe, did 
not the sense of smell warn us to avoid them. 

12. Sight. — By sight w T e mean that sense by which we 
learn the size, color, distance, and form of objects about 
us, with which we are in direct contact. \V T e look at the 
faces of our friends or at a beautiful landscape ; we read 
books or letters ; we write, and we do a thousand other 
things that sight enables us to do. These things are so 
natural to us that we, perhaps, have never thought what 
a wonderful thing sight is, or how necessary it is to our 
comfort and pleasure. 

13. The Eye. — The eye is the organ of sight. It is 
both a wonderful and beautiful thing. It is a wise ar- 
rangement of our Creator that there are two eyes, so that 
if one should be destroyed, the other could do the work 
of both. The eye gives expression to the emotions ; 
and by looking people in the eye we often know more 
about them than by any other way. A person may 
have a cruel eye that you shudder to look at; an eye 
that looks the sympathy which the heart feels, although 
not a word may be spoken ; an honest eye, that tells you 
the man is to be trusted ; a loving eye, that shows you 
the love with which the heart is filled. Surely the eye 
is, what it is often called, " the window of the soul." 

14. The Eyeball. — The eyeball, which is a delicate or- 
gan, is well protected from injury by the bony sockets 
or holes in the head. If you place a book over the eye, 



116 



THE FIVE SENSES. 



one end of which rests on the eyebrows, you will see 
that no part of the eye is touched. The bones project so 
as to protect it. The eyeball is round, except on the 
front, which projects beyond the rest (Fig. 45). Joined 







Fig. 45.— Vertical Section of The Eye. (Enlarged.) 
C, The Cornea. R, The Retina. 

I, The Iris. N, The Optic Nerve. 

P, The Pupil. DD. The Eyelids. 

L, The Crystalline Lens. 

to the back of the eyeball, as the stem is joined to the 
apple, is the optic nerve. 

15. The Retina. — The optic nerve spreads over the 
inner surface of the eye, and is called the retina. Upon 
this, pictures of objects looked at are thrown, and re- 
main for a few seconds, but gradually fade away. A 
bright light or color looked at for a few minutes cannot 
be lost sight of at once by closing the eyes. You seem 
to see it dimly, but in the same form as when your eyes 
were open. After a little time it fades away. The 



THE FIVE SENSES. 



117 



spokes of a rapidly moving carriage- wheel look like a 
plane surface ; a stick lighted at one end and whirled 
rapidly around, in the dark, looks like a ring of fire. 

16. Color-blindness. — Some persons cannot tell one 
color from another. They cannot distinguish blue from 
green or red, and are called color-blind. Color-blindness 
is said to be the frequent cause of railroad accidents, 
because the engineer cannot tell the color of the signal on 
approaching it. 

17. The Iris and Pupil. — The thin circular curtain 
that gives to the eye 
its color — blue, brown, 
gray, or black — is 
called the iris (Fig. 
46). In the centre of 
the iris is a round open- 
ing called the pupil. 
This grows larger or 
smaller, as we are in a 
dark or light room. 
When we go from a 

very light to a dark FlG - 46 - — Front Section of the Eyeball, 

VIEWED FROM BEHIND, AND SHOWING SUS- 

room we can see noth- pensory ligament, iris, and pupil. 
ing plainly, but as the pupil expands, or grows larger, 
more light enters the eye, and we begin to see objects 
more distinctly. 

18. Effect of Light on the Pupil.— As we suddenly 
go again to the light, so much of it enters the eye that 
we are dazzled, until the pupil again contracts, and we 
again see plainly. If you will take one of your play- 




118 THE FIVE SENSES. 

mates into a dark room, you will see that, in a short time, 
the pupils of his eyes will grow very large. Bring him 
iuto the light again and they will get as small as they 
were before he entered the dark room. Persons injure 
their eyes very much, and sometimes become blind by 
gazing too long at a bright object like the sun. 

19. The Cornea.— The front part of the eyeball pro- 
jects somewhat and has for its protection a transparent 
substance in shape like a watch crystal. This is called 
the cornea, and is the sole window by which light enters 
the eye. In health it is beautifully clear and bright ; an<J 
so thin and delicate is it that you cannot see it in your 
own eye looking straight at it in a mirror. But if a per- 
son stand with the side of his face towards you and you 
look closely at his eye, you can see this little bulging win 
dow-pane. 

20. Shape of Cornea, and Sight.— The cornea may 
bulge too much. You will see this in some people who, 
when reading a book, find it necessary to hold it very 
much closer to the eye than you do. This is because of 
the too great bulge of the cornea and is one of the causes 
of near-sightedness. On the other hand, if the cornea is too 
flat, objects that are held close to the eye are not seen clearly. 
A person is then said to be far-sighted. In either of these 
cases eye-glasses ought to be used, even for young children. 

21. The Crystalline Lens. — Across the front of the 
eye, just behind the iris, is something which looks like 
a small lemon-drop; it is about a quarter of an inch 
thick, and is called the crystalline lens. If you will place 
a magnifying-glass at a window of a darkened room, and 



: 






THE FIVE SENSES. 119 

hold a piece of paper behind it, you will see, upon the 
paper, a picture of what is going on outside, but the im- 
ages in the picture will be inverted, or upside down (Fig. 
47). People will seem to be walking with their heads 




Fig. 47.— The Retinal Image. 



down and their feet up, and houses will seem to be hang- 
ing from the ground above them, instead of standing on it. 
This is called an inverted image of the objects you see. 
In the same way the rays of light pass through the crystal- 
line lens, and are brought together in a point called the 
fo-cus, at the surface of the retina, and form an inverted 
picture there. 

22. The Inverted Image. — You will ask, if the image 
on the retina is inverted, how does it happen that our 
mind sees it in its right position? That is a question to 
which there is no satisfactory answer. It may be that, as 
we know our own place upon the ground and as we stand 
upright, we learn to know what is the real position of 
objects, and thus give them their true place. 

23. The Eyebrows and Eyelids. — The hairy arches 
just above the eyes, which prevent the perspiration from 
running into them and protect them from dust, are the 



120 THE FIVE SENSES. 



ver 
ger 



eyebrows. The movable curtains which, when shut, cover 
the eye entirely, are the eyelids. The upper lid is larger 
and more easily moved than the lower one. A firm mu 
cous membrane lines the eyelids, and is so sensitive that 
the smallest bit of sand or dirt in the eye causes a flow of 
tears and a great deal of pain, until it is removed. 

24. The Eyelashes.— The hairs which are on the edge of 
the eyelids, and which with the eyelids help to protect the 
eye from dust and other things that would injure it, are 
the eyelashes. The lashes also help to regulate the quan- 
tity of light that enters the eye. Close to the lashes there 
are little glands which furnish an oil that prevents the 
lids from sticking together when they are closed in sleep. 

25. The Lachrymal Gland. — At the upper and outer 
side of the orbit is a gland from which the tears come, 

^^ --^^- — an d which is called the 

which makes the tears 
~ „ run, we keep blowing the 

Fig. 48.— Front View of Right Eye. r 

(Natural size.) nose# ^jrig is because the 

1. The Lachrymal, or Tear-gland, lying 

beneath the upper eyelid. tears have passed through 

2. The Nasal Duct is shown by the dotted r o 
line. The* marks the orifice in the lower ^ a little pipe ^ed the 

The central black spot is the pupil ; sur- nnnon n i„ lM rpn - + 

rounding it is the iris; and the triangular iMloUV HULL. illt; lliuibl- 
white spaces are the visible portion of the , , it/? 

sclerotic. ure that is not needed tor 

the eyes is carried off by this duct. When we are ex- 



THE FIVE SENSES. 121 

cited or grieved the tears sometimes overflow the lower 
eyelid. 

26. Care of the Eyes. — Most persons are very careless 
in using the eyes. They read or sew without having 
light enough to see plainly what they are doing. They 
read too fine print, or read so long that their eyes be- 
come red and painful. Some persons injure their eyes by 
reading in bed, when they ought to be asleep. Foolish 
boys or girls also read by moonlight or firelight. The 
light should not shine directly upon the eyes when we 
are reading or sewing. If a shade is not worn, we should 
sit with the back to the light which should fall upon the 
book or the work, and not upon the eyes. If the eyes 
begin to pain us, it is best to rest them. By neglecting 
to do this persons have had trouble with their eyes all 
their lives, and some have even become blind. 

27. Hearing. — When we have thrown a stone into 
smooth water, we have seen a circular wave set in motion 
from the point where the stone struck the water, and have 
watched it growing gradually larger. Somewhat like 
this is the wave of motion in the air. If we strike a bell, 
the air about it is set in motion. This motion extends 
to the air beyond it, until at last it reaches the ear and 
sound is heard. Sound is an impression made upon the 
ear by the vibration of the air caused by a moving body. 
Hearing is the special sense by which we are made ac- 
quainted with sound. 

28. Solids Convey Sound.— Solid substances convey 
sounds more distinctly than they are conveyed by the air. 
You will find this to be true if you place your ear at one 



122 THE FIVE SENSES. 

end of a long beam, and let one of your playmates scratch 
the other end with a pin. You will hear the scratching 
very plainly. 

The Indians by putting their ears to the ground can 
hear a troop of horsemen coming, although they are far 
out of sight, and can tell the difference between their 
tread and that of a herd of buffaloes. 

29. Air Necessary to Sound. — Sound cannot be pro- 
duced when there is no air. If all the air be pumped out 
of a tube or jar and we try to ring a bell in it, the clapper 
will move, but we can hear no sound. If the air be let 
in again, the bell will ring clearly. How thankful we 
should be that we can see the faces of our friends and 
hear their voices ! If both sight and hearing were taken 
from us, how great w^ould be our loss ! 

30. The Ear. — In order to study the organ of hear- 
ing, it is necessary to divide the ear into three parts — the 
outer, the middle, and the inner ear (Fig. 49). The outer 
ear is the part we see. It is a beautifully formed plate 
of cartilage covered with skin, and is somewhat trumpet- 
shaped, so that it can collect sounds and direct them in- 
ward. There is a little tube an inch and a quarter long, 
which connects the outer with the middle ear, and across 
the lower end of the tube a thin membrane is stretched, 
like the head of a drum, which divides the outer from 
the middle ear. 

31. The Ear-drum. — This membrane is so thin and 
delicate that it can be easily broken, and if broken the 
hearing will be injured. The lining membrane of this 
tube has little glands, which secrete a yellow, bitter sub- 






THE FIVE SENSES. 123 

stance, called "ear-wax," which is a protection against 
such small insects as are liable to find their way into the 
outer ear. The middle ear is a small cavity about a 
quarter of an inch across and half an inch long (Fig. 50). 
From the peculiar arrangement of its different parts it 




Fig. 49.— The Ear and its Different Parts. 

A, Diagram of the Ear. 

a, 6, External Ear. d, Middle Ear. 

c, The Tympanum. e, Internal Ear. 

B to B'", Bones of the Middle Ear (magnified). 
C, The Labyrinth, or Internal Ear (highly magnified). 

is called the tympanum, or drum of the ear. The thin 
membrane that separates it from the outer ear is the 
drum-head. This membrane is very thin and elastic, so 
that every wave of sound that touches it causes it to vi- 
brate, as a drum-head vibrates when it is struck. 

32. The Middle Ear. — Within this drum, and stretched 
across it, are three tiny little bones, one of which moves. 
Small as these bones are, they have their muscles, carti- 



124 



THE FIVE SENSES. 



lages, and blood-vessels as nicely arranged as are those in 
the larger bones of the body (Fig. 51j. One of these little 
bones is attached to the drum-head, another to the opposite 
side of the drum, while the third swings between them. 
As the waves of sound strike the head of the drum, thej 
move these little bones and cause the motion to be sent 
forward to the inner ear. The drum contains air, which 
gets into it through an opening or narrow canal called 




Fig. 50.— Section of the Right Ear. 



A, The Concha. 

B, Auditory Canal. 

C, Membrane of the Drum 

(the lower half). 

D, A Small Muscle. 



E, Incus, or Anvil. 
M, Malleus, or Mallet. 
I, Eustachian Tube. 
G, Semicircular Canals. 
H, Cochlea, or Snail's Shell. 



the Eustachian tube, which opens into the throat. This 
tube also carries off the fluids which form in the drum. 
When the lining membrane of this tube becomes thick- 



THE FIVE SENSES. 



125 



ened, as it does sometimes when we " take cold " in the 
head, these fluids may be locked up temporarily, and 
thus may hinder the waves of sound ; when this is the 
case, we are said to be u hard of hearing.'" 

33. The Internal Ear, or Labyrinth. — The inner 
ear is a bony case of tiny winding chambers and spiral 
tubes hollowed out in the solid bone. From its winding 
shape it is called the labyrinth. These passages are lined 
with a delicate bag of membrane, which partly fills the 



,^^- 







Fig. 51.— Showing the Internal Mechanism of the Ear (greatly enlarged). 

cavity. The bag is filled with and also surrounded by a 
clear fluid in which it floats. The fibers of the auditory 
nerve, which passes from the brain to the inner ear, are 
spread out over the inner surface of this bag. By means 
of this auditory nerve the impression of sound is made 
on the brain. 



126 THE FIVE SENSES. 

34. Care of the Ear. — Great care should be taken of 
the ear if we wish the hearing to be good. Cold water 
should never be put into the ear, and if, after bathing, 
there is w r ater in the ear, we should hold the head to one 
side and pull the ear open, so that the water may run out. 
A neglect of these directions may lead to deafness. Cold 
air coming through a crack in the door or window into 
the ear may cause deafness. If it is necessary to put 
anything into the ears or to syringe them w r ith water 
let the w T ater be first warmed. It is dangerous to put 
cotton into the ears to protect them from cold. The ear 
is only made more sensitive by it, and the hearing is in- 
jured. Never put pins or ear-picks or anything made of 
wood or metal into the ear to get out the wax. All such 
things are likely to do harm. 

35. To Remove Objects from the Ear. — If a foreign 
body, like a pea, a bean, or a little stone should get into 
the ear, syringe the ear carefully with warm water, turn- 
ing the head a little to one side. The overflowing of the 
water will usually bring it out. If a fly or some other 
insect should get into the ear, fill the ear with oil or soap 
suds that have first been warmed, in order to kill it. Then 
turn that side of the head down. The insect and the fluid 
will usually come out together. If they do not, syringe 
the ear, as mentioned above. It is well to remember this 
direction, as it may be of service. Some years ago a lady, 
who was a long distance from home, got a fly into her 
ear. The buzzing annoyed her very much, and not 
knowing how to get it out, she traveled more than a hun- 
dred miles to have it removed by her physician. 



THE FIVE SENSES. 127 

36. Caution. — A hard blow or "box" upon the ear 
given with the hand may produce deafness. It will not 
do to trifle with a delicate structure like the ear. AVe 
cannot be too careful of our ears and our eyes, as these 
are the organs through which we get the most of our 
knowledge and pleasure. Sight conveys to us the 
beauties of the world about us. Hearing brings us in 
contact with the minds of others. 



QUESTIONS. 



1. If the nerves could be cut so that they could not communi- 

cate with the brain, how would it effect us? . .110 

2. What is the organ of feeling? . . . . 110 

3. Upon what does the sensibility of the body depend? . 110 

4. Can the hair, nails and scarf-skin feel? Why not? . 110 

5. What is the sensitive part of the skin? . . . 110 

6. Could a surgical operation be performed without pain if we 

could destroy all feeling in the cutio? Why? . .110 

7. How is pain made useful to us? . . . Ill 

8. What accidents sometimes happen to men when they are in 

a drunken sleep? ...... Ill 

9. How are you warned not to eat too much? . . Ill 

10. What do you mean by special senses? . . .111 

11. How many and what are they ? . . . . Ill 
1*2. Where is the sense of touch most acute? . . .111 

13. How does it take the place of sight in the blind? . 112 

14. What is the special organ of taste? . . . .112 

15. Why are there so many muscles in the tongue? . . 112 

16. What are the papillae? . . . . .112 

17. What is their use? ...... 112 

18. What can you say about the papallae in the lower animals? . 112 

19. Is taste a matter of education? Give examples. . 113 

20. How does it depend on climate? .... 113 

21. What do the inhabitants of cold climates prefer to eat and 

drink? . . . . . . .113 

22. How far can the sense of taste be cultivated? . . 113 



128 



THE FIVE SENSES. 



23. In what is the sense of smell situated ? 

24. Of what is the nose formed? 

25. Where are the nasal cavities? 

26. What is the mucous membrane? What is its use ? 

27. Is the sense of smell the same in all persons? 

28. What can you tell me about the sense of smell in a dog 

29. How do animals that are hunted by dogs put them off their 

scent? ...... 

30. Of what use is smell to us? 

31. What do we mean by sight? 

32. How does the eye express the emotions? 

33. Can any of you tell by looking at a person how he feels 

towards you? ..... 

34. How is the eye-ball protected from injury? 

35. What is the shape of the eye-ball? 

36. Where is the optic nerve joined to it? 

37. Over what does it spread and what is it called? 

38. Upon what are pictures of objects thrown? 

39. What is the effect of closing the eyes after looking at a 

bright object? Give examples. 

40. When are persons said to be color-blind? 

41. Is this often the cause of railroad accidents? 

42. What is the iris? What is the pupil ? 

43. What effect does light have upon the pupil? 

44. Give some examples. ..... 

45. How do persons often injure their eyes? 

46. What is the cornea? 

47. What causes persons to be near-sighted? . 

48. What causes them to be far-sighted? 

49. Where is the crystalline lens situated ? 

50. How large is it and how does it look? 

51. What is its use? ..... 

52. How is this made plainer by the use of a magnifying glass 

53. Are the images of persons and houses which are thrown 

upon the paper in their right position? . 

54. What is such an image called? 

55. Is this like the image formed upon our retina? 

56. Why then do we see things as they really are? 

57. What is the use of the eyebrows? 

58. What are the eyelids? Their uses? 

59. With what are they lined? Is it sensitive? 

60. What use are the eyelashes? 



119 
119 
119 
111 
IIS 
120 
120 
120 



THE FIVE SENSES. 



129 



61, 
62, 
63. 
64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 
68. 
69. 
70. 
71. 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 
76. 
77. 
78. 
79. 
80. 

81. 

82. 
83. 

84. 
85. 
86. 
87. 



90. 
91. 
92. 

93. 
94. 
95. 



What are the uses of the little glands near the eyelashes? 

What is the lachrymal gland? What is its use? 

What is the nasal duct and its use? 

Should we read without sufficient light ? . 

Should light shine into our eyes when we are reading? 

Should we continue, tc use our eyes if they pain us? 

What is hearing? ..... 

What is sound? ..... 

What does the motion caused by sound resemble? . 

What is a good conductor of sound? Give examples. 

How do solid bodies convey sound? Give an example, 

Can sound be produced when there is no air? 

Give the example of the bell. 

Why ought you to be thankful for sight and hearing? 

Into how many parts is the ear divided? Name them. 

What is the outer ear? Describe it. 

What connects it with the middle ear? 

What is stretched across it? 

What is the ear-wax? What is its use? 

How can you get out a fly or any other insect that may be 

in the ear? ..... 

What is the middle ear? ..... 
What is it called? ..... 

What is the thin membrane stretched across it called 

What is its use? ..... 
How many bones are there in the drum? 
Does either of them move? .... 
What can yon tell me about their muscles and cartilages? 
How are they arranged ? Their use? 
How does the air get into the drum? 
When does the Eustachian tube open? What is its use? 
What effect does a cold have upon it? 
What is the inner ear? What is it called? 
To what is the auditory nerve attached ? See if you can 

describe it. ..... 

Should we put cold water in our ears? Why not? 
Why should you not put anything hard into them? 
May a hard blow upon the ear do harm? 



APPENDIX. 






Emergencies. 

44 The readiness is all."— Hamlet. 

The life of many a child has been saved by the fire-drill in 
schools, and great good has been done on shipboard by a drilling 
of the crews. 

If in a building filled with smoke, get down on hands and 
knees and crawl to door or window. 

In a cellar, well, or vat where carbonic acid can collect, the 
true posture is to stand erect. If a candle, on being lowered into 
a suspected place, is put out, you may know that there is danger 
to human life. 

Burns and Scalds. — The secret of the best treatment of these 
injuries is to exclude the air from the wounded surfaces. When 
they are slight, and the skin is not destroyed but merely blistered, 
prevent as much as possible the displacement of the skin. Let 
the blisters be punctured, if necessary, to let out the liquid, and 
then keep the skin in place by cotton cloth or lint, wet with a 
solution of one teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water, 
or a strong solution of baking-soda. The cloth should be kept 
wet constantly, but do not irritate the wound by taking off the 
dressing too often. 

Extensive burns are much worse than deep burns. In the for- 
mer case, the outlook is grave, and the patient will probably re- 
quire the best aid, both medical and surgical, of some physician. 



132 APPENDIX. 

Scars after Burns. — If a burn be on the face, neck, or near a 
joint, it is not well to hasten the healing process, on account of 
the contraction that always takes place as the scar is formed. 

" Fire is a source of danger, and at times is very destructive to 
life. Spontaneous combustion of the human body w r hen satu- 
rated with alcohol is a myth, though perhaps the alcoholized body 
does burn more readily than one free from inflammable fluid. 
When a lady is on fire, she should not run, as running fans the 
flames amazingly. She must be laid down, and rolled up in the 
nearest woolen article, — rug, coat, or blanket. Such wrapping- 
up in a non-inflammable article is a most effective method of 
extinguishing the flames. Immersion in water is, unfortunately, 
rarely practicable. " — Fothergill. 

Illuminating Gas is dangerous in two ways. If it escapes into a 
tightly closed room in sufficient quantities, it causes the death of 
the inmates by suffocation, unless some one from without dis- 
covers the perilous situation. If not too late, remove the patient 
into fresh air, undo the clothing, dash cold water on the face and 
neck, and employ artificial respiration, as in drowning (see p. 
135). Again : if the gas escapes freely into an apartment, it forms 
an explosive compound by mixing with the air. If then a light is 
unguardedly taken into the place, an explosion that may be de- 
structive to life will result. Always thoroughly air any room 
that has the odor of escaping gas before a light is taken in. 

Kerosene is the cause of even more " accidents" than gas. Too 
much care cannot be taken in its use. Buy only that which has 
been tested, but remember that not all the brands that are marked 
as "safe" are truly so. If a responsible oil-man certifies that 
the oil will not " flash" under 140°, it may be regarded as safe 
if properly used. Lamps should be filled only in the daytime. 
Never attempt to fill a lamp that is lighted, and never put kero- 
sene in the stove for the purpose of kindling a fire. Very small 
lamps are dangerous, as also is a lamp that has burned a long 
time, and has but very little oil in it. 

Frost-bites. — Keep away from the fire and in a cool room. Rub 



APPENDIX. 133 

the nose or other part that has been " bitten" with snow or ice- 
water until the blood is again warm and circulating in the part. 
With chilblains do not go near the fire ; if the skin is unbroken, 
it should be hardened by brushing it over with alcohol having 
tannin in it. 

Cuts. — These, if severe, should be promptly attended by a phy- 
sician, but every one should know how to treat small wounds. 
Learn the difference between the two kinds of bleeding, called 
k> arterial" and "venous." Arterial blood is bright red, and 
comes in jets (or with throbs corresponding to the pulse) ; ve- 
nous blood is dark-colored, and flows continuously. When an 
artery is cut, press on that side of the wound nearer to the heart; 
when a vein is cut, on the side away from the heart. Or, pres- 
sure may be made over the wound itself with the fingers : this 
may stop the loss of blood from small arteries as well as from 
veins. Loss of blood from arteries is apt to be more rapid and 
dangerous than that from veins ; and when the cut vessel is a 
large one, the skill of the surgeon will ordinarily be required in 
order to close the bleeding artery permanently and securely. 

It is well, in every household, to have, in some handy and well- 
known place, some strips of old muslin and some lint, or oakum, 
a bandage or two, and some adhesive plaster, a soft sponge, and 
needles and thread in a basket or box by themselves. In this way. 
valuable time may be saved in the stanching of blood, flowing 
in consequence of some accidental cut or other injury. 

Fits or Convulsions. —These may be trivial or grave. If it is a 
young woman, the attack is probably hysterical, and, as a rule, 
not dangerous : a sprinkle of cold water will bring relief. If 
the patient struggles with regularity of movement, and there is a 
bloody froth on the lips, it is a case of epilepsy, and requires a 
physician's attendance. Meanwhile, protect the head from injury 
by putting a pillow or some soft article beneath it ; a cork intro- 
duced between the teeth will prevent the biting of the tongue. 
Prevent the person from falling or injuring himself, but do not 
attempt forcibly to hold him quiet. 



134 APPENDIX. 






In children, apply cloths dipped in water to the head ; disturb 
the child as little as possible ; do not use a warm bath until di- 
rected to do so by the doctor. 

Fainting.— This occurs when the blood is deficient in the brain. 
The proper position for one in a faint, therefore, is on his back. 
Let the window be opened to admit fresh air ; fanning and the 
sprinkling of water are useful. If the clothing about the chest 
is tight, let it be loosened. If the faint occurs at church or some 
public gathering, remove the person promptly to the outer air ; 
for foul air is frequently the cause of the trouble. 

Vertigo. — This is "a rush of blood to the brain." The body 
should be placed in the sitting posture, with the head erect. If 
the blood escapes into the brain by reason of the rupture of a 
blood-vessel within it, the case is very grave, and the physician 
should be summoned at once. Meanwhile, let the position of the 
body be as above stated. Apoplexy is known, in very many cases, 
by the helpless condition of an arm or leg, or both. 

Sunstroke is seldom produced in this climate in persons who 
have not labored too hard. Fatigue and sun-heat are commonly 
the joint causes of sudden prostration in summer; although 
" heat-stroke" may occur in an artificially heated atmosphere, 
without exposure to the sun. In the tropics, there is the least 
possible exertion by the natives during the mid-day hours. On 
very hot days, therefore, avoid fatigue and labor in the open 
air as much as possible. Keep the head cool. If any unusual, 
dizzy feeling comes on, apply cold water to the head and neck. 
If a person falls unconscious and the skin is decidedly hot and 
dry, he should be taken to a cool place. If the face and head 
are red and hot, apply ice-water on cloths. If pale, give stimu- 
lants gradually and use cold water sparingly. 

Shock may be caused by a fall or by a blow upon the head or 
on the pit of the stomach. It is known by slowing of the pulse 
and respiration ; the face is pale and the skin becomes cool. 
The head should be placed low, some ammonia in water be 
given, and warmth applied to the surface of the body. 



APPENDIX. 135 

Droivning. 

Marshall Hall's "Ready Method 1 ' of treatment in asphyxia 
from drowning, chloroform, coal-gas, etc. 

1st. Treat the patient instantly on the spot, in the open air, 
freely exposing the face, neck, and chest to the breeze, except in 
severe weather. 

2d. In order to clear the throat, place the patient gently on 
the face, with one wrist under the forehead, that all fluid, and 
the tongue itself, may fall forward, and leave the entrance into 
the windpipe free. 

3d. To excite respiration, turn the patient slightly on his side, 
and apply some irritating or stimulating agent to the nostrils, as 
veratrine, dilute ammonia, etc. 

4th. Make the face warm by brisk friction ; then dash cold 
water upon it. 

5th. If not successful, lose no time ; but, to imitate respira- 
tion, place the patient on his face, and turn the body gently, but 
completely, on the side, and a little beyond ; then again on the 
face, and so on, alternately. Repeat these movements deliber- 
ately and perseveringly, fifteen times only in a minute. (When 
the patient lies on the thorax, this cavity is compressed by the 
weight of the body, and expiration takes place. When he is 
turned on the side, this pressure is removed, and Aspiration oc- 
curs.) 

6th. When the prone position is resumed, make a uniform and 
efficient pressure along the spine, removing the pressure immedi- 
ately, before rotation on the side. (The pressure augments the 
expiration ; the rotation commences Aspiration.) Continue these 
measures. 

7th. Rub the limbs upward, with firm pressure and with en- 
ergy. (The object being to aid the return of venous blood to the 
heart.) 

8th. If possible, substitute for the patient's wet clothing such 
other covering as can be instantly procured, each bystander sup- 



136 APPENDIX. 

plying a coat or cloak, etc. Meantime, and from time to time, 
to excite inspiration, let the surface of the body be slapped briskly 
with the hand. 

9th. Eub the body briskly till it is dry and warm, then dash 
cold water upon it, and repeat the rubbing. 

Avoid the immediate removal of the patient, as it involves a 
dangerous loss of time — also, the use of bellows, or any forcing 
instrument ; also, the warm bath, and all rough treatment. 

The Home and Health. 

The location of the house should be airy, dry, and sunny. 

A certain amount of elevation is necessary, in order to secure 
proper drainage. Too much shade must not fall upon the house, 
as sunlight is very necessary to a proper degree of animal vigor. 
Young children, as is well known, especially profit by the tonic 
influence of sunlight. 

The cellar is an important part of the dwelling ; therefore, un- 
less care be taken for its ample ventilation, it will be the source 
from which is supplied much of the air breathed in the upper 
chambers of the house. If the cellar is damp the house is liable 
to become so, and if vegetables are stored in the cellar, an es 
pecial degree of care is needed to ventilate it thoroughly and con 
stantly. 

House-drainage. — An English writer has stated that ' ' the mosi 
important part of the house is the drains." This, no doubt, 
sounds strangely to the ears of many, who have been brought up 
to view the parlor or drawing-room as the true center of th 
house, and yet it is no foolish saying, when we reflect that wit 
a bad system of drainage to a house every dweller therein stands 
in peril of several forms of disease that, mild as the cases may be, 
are a source of anxiety, and, when severe, too often have a fatal 
termination. Drain-diseases, such as typhoid fever, dysentery, 
diphtheria, and scarlet fever, often destroy entire families. 
These diseases do not always spring upon a home through defect - 



e 

p 

h 

Is 



APPENDIX. 137 

ive drainage ; but when they do, they frequently show themselves 
in a very violent form. 

Drainage, as applied to dwellings, consists in conveying away 
from the house the liquid and solid impurities that would other- 
wise accumulate in or near the dwelling. Waste is a necessary 
accompaniment of all animal life, to the preparation and the 
taking of food, to the clothing of the body, to bathing and other 
simple acts of daily life. The waste material of houses tends to 
decay and to become offensive. It must, therefore, not only be 
put out of sight and smell, but must be removed so far away that 
it cannot return in the form of dangerous, invisible gases of de- 
composition. 

The best house-drains are made of iron or glazed earthenware, 
carefully selected and well laid. The joints of the pipes should 
be gas-tight. The soil-pipe should be carried up to and through 
the roof. All the waste-pipes from basins, etc., in the rooms 
should be joined in a gas-tight manner to the soil-pipe, and each 
and every basin and other fixture should have a separate trap. 
What is a trap ? It is a device that is designed to retain a certain 
portion of the water running through it — called the " water-seal" 
— so that the ascent of air or gas, from the drain back into the 
room, is prevented. It "traps" the sewer gas away from us. 
Whenever a fixture has been used, and there is not, beyond all 
doubt, a sufficiency of water to fill the trap, additional water 
should be poured in. Traps are of various sizes, and of an in- 
finite variety of patterns and patents, and must vary greatly ac- 
cording to their situation ; but one thing should be made sure of 
in their use — namely, that they hold not less than two inches of 
water as a "seal." 

There is at almost all seasons of the year an upward, because 
warmer, current of air through the main pipes. It is therefore 
better to have a fresh-air inlet pipe near the point where the 
drain leaves the house-wall. This helps to prevent the unsealing 
of traps. It also brings about a purer condition of the air in the 
interior of the system of pipes : so useful is this air-current 



138 APPENDIX. 

through the soil-pipe that if applied there is little danger of the 
escape of sewer gas into the living rooms. 

What is sewer gas or sewer air ? It varies greatly in different 
places and at different times. It is not a definite gas, like oxygen, 
nitrogen, etc., but varies in composition, and, what is still more 
worthy of note, it varies in its dangerous qualities. It is not al- 
ways offensive, although it is generally so ; its odor has been de- 
scribed as being " sweetish and sickish." Its dangerous qualities 
have not yet been determined by chemistry or the microscope ; 
but one practical point may be borne in mind — namely, that when 
a case or cases of contagious disease occur in any house along 
any given line of sewer pipes, it is best to use disinfectants in the 
drainage of the other dwellings along the same line of sewer. 
Children should avoid at all times playing over or around the 
sewer gratings in the streets, and especially when scarlet fever and 
like contagions diseases are known to be in the neighborhood, 
for the exit of sewer air at these points is always very free, unless 
it be directly after a rainfall. 

One other point must be remembered, that the best-laid system 
of house-plumbing is not indestructible. In the course of time, 
defects will arise, breaks will occur ; for this reason it would be 
well for every householder to have at intervals an examination 
made of every joint and along the whole line of the house connec- 
tion with the sewer or drain. 

It is thought by many that sewer gas is not found in the coun- 
try because there are no sewers : they have been misled by the 
word. If the words " drain air" or " filth gas 1 ' had been adopted, 
the universal production of this injurious substance, in close con- 
nection with every abode of man, wherever located, might have 
been better understood. In country houses there are, perhaps, 
fewer dangers of contamination of the air we breathe by waste 
products, because there are fewer water-closets, wash-basins, 
sinks, etc., and the rooms are less exposed to impure air. 

But in the country danger is apt to come by or through the 
pollution of the water supply. The well, which furnishes that 



APPENDIX. 139 

cool and refreshing draught, is the point to be watched. It is 
convenient to have the well near the house, because when snow 
is on the ground, and the weather is cold, the distance to the well 
from the house is a matter of no small moment. Near the house 
must be the stable and pens for animals ; the waste from the 
house goes upon the ground, and not very far away from the 
house ; the chamber slops and the more offensive matters go into 
a pit, which must not be too distant. The result of all these con- 
ditions is a pollution of the soil at alHhese points — a pollution 
which spreads with every rainfall, and which, sooner or later, 
reaches the well ; yet the water may appear as pure as ever. It 
only remains to have the suitable disease-germ lodged in this 
polluted territory to bring down the whole household with a fe- 
ver. This is the kind of soil-pollution which is hard to cure, and 
which, in long-settled countries, causes laws to be enacted re- 
quiring all vaults for the reception of house and human waste to 
be made water-tight, so as to save the soil from its poisoning in- 
fluence. 

This is the kind of poisoning which, in the Dark Ages, caused 
so much unrighteous persecution of the innocent. In those days 
no care whatever was taken in the towns, high-walled, crowded, 
and unsewered, to protect the water supply from pollution. As a 
result, some terrible epidemic of fever would arise. Then the 
angry populace would, in their ignorance, cry out, ' ' The Jews 
have poisoned the wells." The wells were poisoned, no doubt, 
but the Jew was no more worthy of blame than were his accusers. 
Nevertheless, the Jews were not spared ; they were robbed, im- 
prisoned, executed. 

Drainage in the city is a comparatively easy problem when the 
city's sewers are laid in the streets. In the country it is more 
difficult, and on this account the fewer fixtures or ' ' modern im- 
provements" there are in the house the better it will be. There 
should be no less care within the country house, where waste- 
pipes are put in, than in the city house. The material should be 
well selected, tightly joined, and properly ventilated. The water- 



140 APPENDIX. 

closet should be remote from the house. Earth-closets are better 
than the ordinary vaults — house-waste from kitchen and laundry 
should be taken to a considerable distance from the house, and 
far away from the well, and either deposited in a water-tight 
cesspool or conveyed away, by a system of subsoil drainage tiles, 
arranged so as to fertilize some unoccupied plot of ground. 

The Care of the Sick-room. 

The sick-room should be bright and airy, and ' ' Sweetness and 
light " its motto. Other things being equal, it is best on one of 
the upper floors ; in the case of some " catching" disease, on the 
top floor. Let it be on the sunny side of the house. If for any 
reason the light of the sun is temporarily to be avoided — as when 
the eyes are sensitive or have been operated upon — let the light 
be shut out by a proper arrangement of blinds or curtains. The 
air-supply to be breathed by the sick person should be pure. 
Those who, in health, find themselves in an impure air can quit 
it ; they are not compelled to suffer from it ; but a sick person 
may be incapable of recognizing the bad quality of the air, as 
well as helpless to free himself from it. 

To keep the air pure, the windows should be opened as often 
as three times a day, care being taken to protect the patient from 
being chilled while the room is being aired. 

Unless the physician shall direct differently, one window — that 
most remote from the bed — should be open an inch or more both 
day and night, and in all seasons. The extent to which the sash 
shall be lowered must be governed largely by the weather and the 
direction of the wind. 

A fire, in an open fireplace, except in summer weather, will be 
a great help towards keeping the air pure. The upward current 
through a chimney flue, if unobstructed, is equal to or not far 
below 20,000 cubic feet per hour : an outlet sufficient for a room 
occupied by ten persons. 

The inlet of air, however, must not be forgotten, otherwise th 
air of the room tends to become both impure and rare. As 



,r 



APPENDIX. 141 

our houses are generally constructed, the inlet of air is best se- 
cured by a window-sash being lowered from the top. 

Take special care that no stationary wash-basin or other sewer- 
connected convenience is improperly plumbed, and that sewer- 
gas cannot by any possibility escape into the sick-room. 

The swinging of doors to create a current is not an efficient 
means of ventilation, as it agitates the air of the room without 
purifying it, and often disturbs the patient. 

A draught of air is to be avoided ; it will seldom occur that 
the air of the room requires to be so speedily changed that the 
patient need be exposed to a draught ; never, when care has been 
taken to provide continuous and gradual ventilation. 

It should be borne in mind that cold air is not necessarily pure 
air, and that ventilation is not less needed in winter than in warm 
weather. 

Sleep is a great necessity to the sick. If a well person slum- 
bers in the daytime, it will interfere with his sound repose at 
night ; but with the sick this is generally not the case. The more 
they sleep the more favorable are the chances for their recovery ; 
so that it will be readily seen how important it is to avoid noise 
and jar in the sick-room, especially if the disease is acute. 

Bear in mind that even slight noises, as the rustling of gar- 
ments, the creaking of doors, whispering, or noisy footfalls, may 
be sufficient to disturb a brain that is rendered sensitive by pain 
or wakefulness. 

The clothing next the skin should be changed more frequently 
in sickness than in health. These changes must be quickly and 
deftly made, and with as little disturbance as possible. 

Under some conditions of disease, the best welfare of the patient 
is accomplished by having two beds instead of one in the room. 

The temperature of the room must be watched. To that end a 
thermometer should always be present, and easily approached. 
It is better not to have it directly in the view of the patient. The 
temperature should not be allowed to vary much from 65° F., 
unless the doctor otherwise directs. 



142 APPENDIX. 



j as 



Let the furniture be as plain and as free from upholstery 
possible ; not many pieces are required. Movable carpets or rugs 
are better than those that are permanently laid. Curtains about 
the windows are out of place in a sick-room ; so are flowering 
plants and birds, as a general rule. Florence Nightingale, how- 
ever, makes an exception in the case of chronic invalids, and con- 
sents to the comforting influence of a pet bird or two. 

In regard to the admission of visitors and conversation, much 
will depend upon the strength of the patient and the kind of 
sickness ; at many times these are to be forbidden, as having a 
disquieting influence. When contagious disease is in the house, 
the sick-room must be avoided by all except those who have the 
care of the patient, and those having this care should avoid com- 
ing in contact with the other members of the household, espe- 
cially the children. 

Bear in mind that everything brought in contact with the sick 
is liable to endanger the health of the well. 

No articles in use by the invalid should be removed or used by 
others until thoroughly disinfected ; the dishes and spoons should 
be put in boiling water before being taken from the room. The 
room itself should be fumigated with sulphur when the person is 
removed from it. 

Old pieces of muslin, etc., may be used instead of handker- 
chiefs to receive the poisonous discharges from the nose, mouth, 
and throat. These can be destroyed by fire, and thus prevent the 
danger of conveying the disease to others. 

''Taking the breath" and kissing should be avoided by those 
in attendance upon the case. ""^ — * — - — 

The bottles of medicine and other reminders of illness should, 
as far as convenient, be withdrawn from the view of the sick. 

Such as are to be kept always at hand should be arranged in 
an orderly way upon a tidily covered bedside table. The sight of 
a siphon-bottle of aerated water is agreeable to most patients ; 
that may be kept in the room, but the vessels containing milk, 
drinking-water, etc. , should be kept elsewhere. 



APPENDIX. 143 

Disinfection. 

Filth fosters or produces certain diseases ; it should therefore 
be removed as soon as possible. When it is difficult to remove it, 
disinfectants come into play, as they have the power to rob it of 
some of its disease-making force. But let it be remembered that 
disinfection is not cure ; it is not a substitute for cleanliness and 
pure air. The true cure is the removal of filth ; and when our 
homes are concerned in some question of drainage where the filth 
is out of our sight, it may be necessary to consult and employ the 
plumber or some other artisan. 

In times gone by, it was the custom to mask bad smells by 
burning pastiles, coffee, cascarilla, and the like. These are not 
now much used, for most persons have come to understand that 
the fumes thus created do not remove, but simply overpower, the 
evil odors. 

Chemistry has advanced to such a point that various pungent 
chemical substances, formerly not well known, can be furnished 
at small cost, and these substances have the power, in varying 
degrees, to check vile odors. Carbolic acid, chloride of lime, and 
Labarraque's solution are among the best known of these ; but 
there are also certain of the salts of iron and zinc, and the per- 
manganate of potash, that may be used. Sulphur is much used 
for the fumigation of rooms that have been infected. 

Another cheap disinfectant is a solution of chloride of lead. 
It is inodorous, effective, and the cost is small. Take half a 
drachm of the nitrate and dissolve it in a pint or more of boiling 
water. Dissolve two drachms of common salt in a pail or bucket 
of water ; pour the two solutions together, and allow the sediment 
to sink. A cloth dipped in this solution and hung up in a room 
will correct a bad odor promptly ; or if the solution be thrown 
down a drain or upon foul-smelling refuse, it will have the same 
effect. 

The room to be purified with sulphur should be made as tight 
as possible, so that no fumes can escape, either by window, door, 



144 APPENDIX. 

or chimney. Put three pounds of sulphur in an iron pot, which 
should not stand upon woodwork or carpet, lest they be burned, 
but in a large pan of ashes, or upon a layer of bricks ; on this 
sulphur pour a table-spoonful of alcohol. This is then set on fire, 
and everybody immediately withdraws from the room. The room 
should remain closed ten hours, after which it should be thor- 
oughly aired before it is occupied, for the fumes of the sulphur 
are irritating to the" lungs. 

The chemicals above mentioned should be known and labeled 
as poisons. Many persons have been injured, if not killed, by in- 
cautiously or ignorantly drinking those that are of a liquid form. 

Heat is one of the best, if not the best, disinfecting agent. 
Articles of bedding and furniture that cannot well be treated 
otherwise can be purified by a long exposure to a temperature of 
240° F. In some cities, especially in England, furnaces are made 
for the reception of bulky articles that have become infected. 

Fresh, pure air is another powerful agent. If woven fabrics, 
clothing, and the like are for a long time aired out of doors, they 
cease to be infective ; probably by the enormous dilution, if no 
destruction, of the elements of danger. 

Certain diseases are " catching ; " they have the power of spread- 
ing from one person to another, chiefly by the particles that pass 
off from the body of the patient. Among these diseases are 
small-pox, measles, scarlet fever, and diphtheria. The articles 
that are worn or used by the patient become " infected," and they 
should be disinfected before they are used by others. As a rule, 
of course, a doctor will be called in to attend to these diseases. 
When that is so, follow his directions as to disinfection as well as 
every other part of the treatment of the case. For substances 
that are not injured by being washed, a good and cheap disinfect- 
ant is sulphate of zinc (" white vitriol ") and common salt dissolved 
in water, boiling-hot if possible ; using eight table-spoonfuls of the 
zinc and four of salt to the gallon of water. This is useful for 
clothing, bed-linen, towels, handkerchiefs, etc. After these ar- 
ticles have lain for an hour or two in this solution, they should be 



ley 
aot 

ad- 
ass 



APPENDIX. 145 

allowed to stand in boiling water before being washed. Infected 
articles that are of little value should, of course, be destroyed by 
fire. 

The United States Treasury Department has published the fol- 
lowing formula for the disinfection of the rags coming from 
Egypt : " 1. Boiling in water for two hours under a pressure of 
fifty pounds per square inch ; 2. Boiling in water for four hours 
without pressure ; or, 3. Subjection to the action of sulphur fumes 
for six hours, burning one and one half to two pounds of roll 
brimstone in each 1000 cubic feet of space, with the rags well 
scattered upon racks.'' Either of these three methods is accepted 
as sufficiently thorough to prevent the spreading of cholera by 
means of rags. 

On Going into the Country. 

To spend the summer in the country would be the choice of all 
city-dwellers whenever their purses will permit of it. And there 
are not a few advantages in such a course ; the change of scene is 
good, the mountains and the seaside give a purer and cooler air — 
an air that invigorates and aids in restful sleep at night, so dif- 
ferent from the midsummer atmosphere in hot cities. There are 
fewer excitements in the country ; we do not "live so fast," and 
there is full scope for healthful life and activity in the open air, 
with the green and blue of nature all about us, instead of the 
monotonous walls of towering houses. 

But this course, pleasant and helpful to so many, is not with- 
out its danger. Many who u go away" on vacation are brought 
home sick on account of fever or other diseases caused by defects 
and faults of drainage existing in these temporary summer homes. 
Scarcely a year goes by that one or more summer resorts have not 
gained the ill name of being the hotbeds of typhoid fever, dysen- 
tery, and the like. 

In view of this, how important it becomes that we exercise 
judgment and seek skilled advice in the selection of our summer- 
ing places! 
10 



146 APPENDIX. 



>oked. 

thont 



Again, there is another danger that must not be overlooked, 
Let us suppose that the summer vacation has passed by without 
accident ; that we return invigorated by the experience ; and that 
the home in the city has been empty and closed during our ab- 
sence ; what has happened that the air in the rooms newly re 
opened should be foul and stifling ? This has taken place : th< 
water that stands in the traps of house pipes, and shuts off gasei 
from the sewer when the rooms are in use and water is daily en 
tering the different wash-basins, etc., has evaporated during 
our absence. For weeks, perhaps, there has been no l \ water- 
seal " in the traps, and the ascent of sewer air has been going on 
continuously, so that not only is the air utterly unfit to live in, 
but all the curtains, carpets, and other absorbing materials have 
become saturated with the pollution thus allowed to enter. Lei 
it be remembered that when a sink, etc. , is not in use, it is gradu 
ally losing the trap- water by the evaporation. 

What is the remedy, you will ask, for the condition of things 
caused by closing up the house, as above stated ? To this the re 
ply is, that the house, while vacant, should from time to time 
be opened and aired, and water should be poured down each and 
every sanitary fixture, in sufficient quantity to renew the supply 
of water in the trap of each. 

Poisons amd their Antidotes. 

Accidents from poisoning are of such frequent occurrence that 
every one should be able to administer the more common anti- 
dotes until the services of a physician can he obtained. As many 
poisons bear a close resemblance to articles in common use, no 
dangerous substance should be brought into the household with- 
out having the word poison plainly written or printed on the 
label ; and any package, box, or vial without a label should be at 
once destroyed if the contents are not positively known. 

When a healthy person is taken severely and suddenly ill soon 
after some substance has been swallowed, we may suspect that he 
has been poisoned. In all cases where poison has been taken into 



APPENDIX. 147 

the stomach, it should be quickly and thoroughly expelled by 
some active emetic, which can be speedily obtained. This may be 
accomplished by drinking a tumblerful of warm water containing 
either a table-spoonful of powdered mustard or of common salt, 
or two tea -spoonfuls of powdered alum in two table -spoonfuls of 
syrup. When vomiting has already taken place, it should be 
maintained by copious draughts of warm water or mucilaginous 
drinks, such as gum- water or flaxseed tea, and tickling the throat 
with the finger until there is reason to believe that all the poison- 
ous substance has been driven from the stomach. 

The following list embraces only the more common poisons, to- 
gether with such antidotes as are usually at hand, to be used 
until the physician arrives. 

Acids. — Hydrochloric acid, muriatic acid (spirits of salt), 
nitric acid (aqua fortis). sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol). 

Antidote. — An antidote should be given at once to neutralize 
the acid. Strong soapsuds make an efficient remedy, and can al- 
ways be obtained. It should be followed by copious draughts of 
warm water or flaxseed tea. Chalk, magnesia, soda or saleratus 
(with water), and lime-water, are the best remedies. When sul- 
phuric acid has been taken, water should be given sparingly, be- 
cause when water unites with this acid intense heat is produced. 

Oxalic acid. 

Antidote. — Oxalic acid resembles Epsom-salt in appearance, 
and may easily be mistaken for it. The antidotes are magnesia 
or chalk mixed with water. 

Prassic Acid, oil of bitter almonds, laurel water, cyanide of 
potassium (used in electrotyping). 

Antidote. — Cold douche to the spine. Chlorine water, or 
water of ammonia largely diluted, should be given, and the vapor 
arising from it inhaled. 

Alkalies and their Salts. — Ammonia (hartshorn), liquor or 
water of ammonia. Potassa — caustic potash, strong lye, car- 
bonate ofpotassa (pearlasli), nitrate of potassa (saltpeter). 

Antidote. — Give the vegetable acids diluted, as weak vinegar ; 



148 APPENDIX. 

acetic, citric, or tartaric acids dissolved in water. Castor-oil, 
linseed-oil, and sweet oil may also be used ; they form soaps 
when mixed with the free alkalies, which they thus render harm- 
less. The poisonous effects of saltpeter must be counteracted by 
taking mucilaginous drinks freely, so as to produce vomiting. 

Alcohol. — Brandy, wine ; all spirituous liquors. 

Antidote. — Give as an emetic ground mustard or tartar emetic. 
If the patient cannot swallow, introduce a stomach-pump ; pour 
cold water on the head. 

Gases.— Chlorine, carbonic-acid gas, carbonic oxide, fumes of 
burning charcoal, sulphuretted hydrogen, illuminating or coal 
gas. 

Antidote. — For poisoning by chlorine, inhale, cautiously, am- 
monia (hartshorn). For the other gases, cold water should be 
poured upon the head, and stimulants cautiously administered ; 
artificial respiration. (See Marshall Hall's Beady Method, page 
135.) 

Metals. — Antimony, tartar emetic, wine of antimony , etc. 

Antidote. — If vomiting has not occurred, it should be produced 
by tickling the throat with the finger or a feather, and the abun- 
dant use of warm water. Astringent infusions, such as common 
tea, oak bark, and solution of tannin, act as antidotes. 

Arsenic. — White arsenic, Fowlers solution, fly-powder, cobalt, 
Paris green, etc. 

Antidote. — Produce vomiting at once with a table-spoonful or 
two of powdered mustard in a glass of warm water, or with ipe- 
cac. The antidote is hydrated peroxide of iron. If Fowler's so- 
lution has been taken, lime-water must be given. 

Copper. — Acetate of copper (verdigris), sulphate of copper (blue 
vitriol), food cooked in dirty copper vessels, or pickles made green 
by copper. 

Antidote. — Milk or white of eggs, with mucilaginous drinks 
(flaxseed tea, etc.), should be freely given. 

Iron. — Sidjihate of iron (copperas), etc. 



: 



APPENDIX. 149 

Antidote. — Carbonate of soda in some mucilaginous drink, or 
in water, is ,an excellent antidote. 

Lead. — Acetate of lead (sugar of lead), carbonate of lead (white 
lead), water kept in leaden pipes or vessels, food cooked in vessels 
glazed with lead. 

Antidote. — Induce vomiting with ground mustard or common 
salt in warm water. The antidote for soluble preparations of 
lead is Epsom-salts ; for the insoluble forms, sulphuric acid large- 
ly diluted. 

Mercury. — Bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate), am- 
moniated mercury (white precipitate), red oxide of mercury (red 
precipitate), red sulphuret of mercury (vermilion). 

Antidote. — The white of eggs, or wheat flour beaten up with 
water and milk, is the best antidote. 

Silver. — Nitrate of silver (lunar caustic). 

Antidote. — Give a tea-spoonful of common salt in a tumbler of 
water. It decomposes the salts of silver and destroys their ac- 
tivity. 

Zinc. — Suljrfiate of zinc, etc. (white vitriol). 

Antidote. — The vomiting may be relieved by copious draughts 
of warm water. The antidote is carbonate of soda administered 
in water. 

Narcotic Poisons. — Opium (laudanum, paregoric, salts of mor- 
phia, Godfrey's cordial, Dalby's carminative, soothing syrup, 
cholera-mixtures), aconite, belladonna, hemlock, stramonium, 
digitalis, tobacco, hyoscyamus, nux vomica, strychnine. 

Antidote. — Empty the stomach by the most active emetics, as 
mustard, alum, or sulphate of zinc. The patient should be kept 
in motion, and cold water dashed on the head and shoulders. 
Strong coffee must be given. The physician will use the stomach- 
pump and electricity. In poisoning by nux vomica or strychnine, 
etc., chloroform or ether should be inhaled to quiet the spasms. 

Irritant Vegetable Poisons. — Croton-oil, oil of savine, poke, 
oil of tansy, etc. 

Antidote. — If vomiting has taken place, it may be rendered 



150 APPENDIX. 






easier by copious draughts of warm water. But if symptoms of 
insensibility have come on without vomiting, it ought to be im- 
mediately excited by ground mustard mixed with warm water, or 
some other active emetic, and after its operation an active pur- 
gative should be given. After expelling as much of the poison as 
possible, strong coffee or vinegar and water may be given with 
advantage. 

Poisonous Fish. — Conger eel, mussels, crabs, etc. 

Antidote. — Evacuate, as soon as possible, the contents of the 
stomach and bowels by emetics (ground mustard mixed with 
warm water or powdered alum), and castor-oil, drinking freely at 
the same time of vinegar and water. Ether, with a few drops of 
laudanum mixed with sugar and water, may afterward be taken 
freely. 

Poisonous Serpents. — Antidote. — A ligature or handkerchief 
should be applied moderately tight above the bite, and a cupping- 
glass over the wound. The patient should drink freely of alco- 
holic stimulants containing a small quantity of ammonia. The 
physician may inject ammonia into the veins. 

Poisonous Insects. — Stings of scorpion, hornet, wasp, bee, etc. 

Antidote. — A piece of rag moistened with a solution of car- 
bolic acid may be kept on the affected part until the pain is re- 
lieved ; and a few drops of carbolic acid may be given frequently 
in a little water. The sting may be removed by making strong 
pressure around it with the barrel of a small watch-key. 



GLOSSARY. 



Ab-do'men (Latin abdo, to conceal). The largest cavity of the body, 
containing the liver, stomach, intestines, etc. ; the belly. 

Ab-sor bents (L. ab and sorbeo, to suck from). The vessels which 
take part in the process of absorption. 

Ab-sorp tion. The process of sucking up fluids by means of an 
animal membrane. 

Ac-com-mo-da tion of the Eye. The alteration in the shape of the 
crystalline lens, which accommodates or adjusts the eye for near 
and remote vision. 

Al-bu'men, or Albumin (L. albus, white). An animal substance re- 
sembling white of agg. 

Al-bu 'mi-nose (from albumen). A soluble animal substance produced 
in the stomach by the digestion of the albuminoid substances. 

Al-bu 'min-o id substances. A class of proximate principles resem- 
bling albumen; they may be derived from either the animal or 
vegetable kingdoms. 

Al-i-ment'a-ry Ca-nal (from alo, to nourish). A long tube in which 
the food is digested, or prepared for reception into the system. 

A-or'ta (Gr. dopreo^iaiy aortsomai, to be lifted up). The largest 
artery of the body, and main trunk of all the arteries. It arises 
from the left ventricle of the heart. The name was first applied to 
the two large branches of the trachea, which appear to be lifted up 
by the heart. 

Artery (Gr. drjp, aer, air, and rr/peiv, terein, to contain). A vessel 
by which blood is conveyed away from the heart. It was supposed 
by the ancients to contain air; hence the name. 

A-ryt'e noid Car ti-la-ges (Gr. dpvraiva, arutaina, a pitcher). 
Two small cartilages of the larynx, resembling the mouth of a 
pitcher. 

As-stm-i-la'tion (L. ad, to, and similis, like). The conversion of 
food into living tissue. 



152 GLOSSARY. 

Au'di-to-ry Nerve. One of the cranial nerves; it is the special 

nerve of hearing. 
Au'ri-cle (L. auris, the ear). A cavity of the heart. 
Baritone (Gr. jSapvS, barm, heavy, and rovoS, tonos, tone). A 

variety of male voice between the bass and tenor. 
Bi-cus fid (L. bi, two, and cuspis, prominence). The name of the 

fourth and fifth teeth on each side of the jaw; possessing two 

prominences. 
Bile. The gall, or peculiar secretion of the liver; a viscid, yellowish 

fluid, and very bitter to the taste. 
Bronch i-al Tubes. The smaller branches of the trachea within 

the substance of the lungs, terminating in the air-cells. 
Ca-nal' (L.). In the body, any tube or passage. 
Ca-nine' (L. cants, a dog). Name given to the third tooth on each 

side of the jaw; in the upper jaw, pointed like the tusks of a dog, 

it is also known as the eye-tooth. 
Cap'il-la-ry (L. capilla, a hair, capilla'ris, hair-like). The name 

of the extremely minute blood-vessels which connect the arteries 

with the veins. 
Carbon Dioxide (C0 2 ). Chemical name for carbonic acid gas. 
Car-bon ic Acid. The gas which is present in the air expired from 

the lungs ; a waste product of the animal kingdom, and a food of 

the vegetable kingdom. 
Car'di-ac (Gr. xapdia, cardia, the heart). The cardiac orifice of the 

stomach is the upper one, and is near the heart; hence its name. 
Cartilage. A solid but flexible material, forming a part of the 

joints, air-passages, nostrils, ear; gristle. 
Cer-e-bel'lum (diminutive for cerebrum, the brain). The little 

brain, situated beneath the posterior third of the cerebrum. 
Cer'e-brum (L.). The brain proper, occupying the entire upper 

portion of the skull. It is nearly divided into two equal parts, 

called " hemispheres," by a cleft extending from before backward. 
Choroid (Gr. xop lov > chorion, a membrane or covering). The mid- 
dle tunic or coat of the eyeball. 
Chyle (Gr. #^A.6s, chulos, juice). The milk-like fluid formed by the 

digestion of fatty articles of food in the intestines. 
Chyme (Gr. x v Mo$, chumos, juice). The pulpy liquid formed by 

digestion within the stomach. 
Cilia (pi. oicil'i-tim, an eyelash). Minute, vibratile, hair-like pro- 
cesses found upon the cells of the air- passages, and other parts that 

are habitually moist. 



GLOSSARY. 153 

Cir CU-lA'tion (L. cir' cuius, a ring). The circuit, or course of the 
blood through the blood-vessels of the body, from ti^e heart to the 
arteries, through the capillaries into the veins, and from the veins 
back to the heart. 

Co-ag-u-la'tion (L. coag'ulo, to curdle). Applied to the process by 
which the blood clots or solidifies. 

Con-vo-lu tions (L. con and vol'vo, to roll together). The tortuous 
foldings of the external surface of the brain. 

Cor'ne-a (L. cor'nu, a horn). The transparent, horn-like substance 
which covers the anterior fifth of the eyeball. 

Corpuscles, Blood (L. dim. of corpus, a body). The small bi- 
concave disks which give to the blood its red color; the white cor- 
puscles are globular and larger. 

Cra'ni-al (L. cranium, the skull). Pertaining to the skull. The 
nerves which arise from the brain are called cranial nerves. 

Crys'tal-llne Lens (L. crystal'lum, a crystal). One of the so-called 
humors of the eye; a double convex body situated in the front part 
of the eyeball. 

Cu'ti-cle (L. dim. of cutis, the skin). The scarf-skin; also called 
the epidermis. 

Cutis (Gr. 6hvtoS, skutos, a skin or hide). The true skin, lying be- 
neath the cuticle; also called the dermis. 

Diaphragm (Gr. Suxcppaddoo, diaphrasso, to divide by a partition). 
A large, thin muscle which separates the cavity of the chest from 
the abdomen; a muscle of respiration. 

Duct (L. du'co, to lead). A narrow tube; the thoracic duct is the 
main trunk of the absorbent vessels. 

Dys-pep si-a (Gr. Svt, dus, difficult, and ketitgd, pepto, to digest). 
Difficult or painful digestion; a disordered condition of the 
stomach. 

E mul'sion (L. emul'geo, to milk). Oil in a finely divided state sus- 
pended in water. 

Enam'el (Fr. email). The dense material which covers the crown 
of the tooth. 

Ep-i-glot'tis (Gr. hiti, epi, upon, and ^Acorns, glottis, the entrance 
to the windpipe). A leaf- shaped piece of cartilage which covers the 
top of the larynx during the act of swallowing. 

Ex-cre tion (L. excer'no, to separate). The separation from the 
blood of the waste particles of the body; also the materials ex- 
creted. 



154 GLOSSARY. 



out 



Ex-pi-ra'tion (L. expi'ro, to breathe out). The act of forcing air 

of the lungs. 

Ex-ten' sion (L. ex, out, and ten' do, to stretch). The act of restoring 
a limb, etc., to its natural position after it has been flexed, or bent; 
the opposite of Flexion. 
Fibrin (L. fibra, a fiber). An albuminoid substance found in the 

blood; in coagulating it assumes a fibrous form. 
Flex' ion (L. flecto, to bend). The act of bending a limb, etc. 
Gan'gli on (Gr. yaryXiov, ganglion, a knot). A knot-like swelling 

in the course of a nerve; a smaller nerve-centre. 
Gastric (Gr. yadrtjp, gaster, stomach). Pertaining to the stomach. 
Gland (L. glans, an acorn). An organ consisting of follicles and 

ducts, with numerous blood-vessels interwoven; it separates some 

particular fluid from the blood. 
Hem'i-spheres (Gr. 6<paipa, sphaira, a sphere). Half a sphere, the 

lateral halves of the cerebrum, or brain proper. 
Hy'gi-ene (Gr. vyieia, hugieia, health). The art of preserving 

health and preventing disease. 
Incisor (L. inci'do, to cut). Applied to the four front teeth of both 

jaws, which have sharp cutting edges. 
Incus (L.). An anvil; the name of one of the bones of the middle 

ear. 
Insal-i va'tion (L. in, and sali'm, the fluid of the mouth). Th» 

mingling of the saliva with the food during the act of chewing. 
In-spi-ra'tion (L. in, and spi'ro, to breathe). The act of drawinj 

in the breath. 
In-teg'u-ment (L. in, and te'go, to cover). The skin, or outer cover 

ing of the body. 
Intestine (L. in'tus, within). The part of the alimentary canal 

which is continuous with the lower end of the stomach; also called 

the intestines, or the bowels. 
Iris (L. i'ris, the rainbow). The thin muscular ring which lies be 

tween the cornea and crystalline lens, and which gives the eye i 

brown, blue, or other color. 
Ju'gu-lar (L. ju'gulum, the throat). The name of the large veim 

which run along the front of the neck. 
Labyrinth (Gr. XafivpirBoS, laburin'thos, a building with man; 

winding passages). The very tortuous cavity of the inner ear, com 

prising the vestibule, semicircular canals, and the cochlea. 
Lach'ry-mal Apparatus (L. lach'ryma, a tear). The organs fo: 

forming and conveying away the tears. 



GLOSSARY. 155 

Lacte-als (L. lac, lac' Us, milk). The absorbent vessels of the small 

intestines; during digestion they are filled with chyle, which has a 

milky appearance. 
Larynx (Gr.). The cartilaginous tube situated at the top of the 

windpipe, or trachea; the organ of the voice. 
Lens (L.). Literally, a lentil; a piece of transparent glass or other 

substance so shaped as either to converge or disperse the rays of 

light. 
Lig'a-ment (L. li'go, to bind). A strong fibrous material binding 

bones or other solid parts together; it is especially necessary to give 

strength to joints. 
Malleus (L.). Literally, the mallet; one of the small bones of the 

middle ear. 
Marrow. The soft, fatty substance contained in the central cavities 

of the bones: the spinal marrow, however, is composed of nervous 

tissue. 
Mas-ti-ca'tion (L. mas'tico, to chew). The act of cutting and grind- 
ing the food to pieces by means of the teeth. 
Me-dtjl'la Ob-lon-ga'ta. The " oblong marrow," or nervous cord, 

which is continuous with the spinal cord within the skull. 
Membrane. A thin layer of tissue serving to cover some part of the 

body. 
Micro-scope (Gr. juixpoS, mikros, small, and 6x011800, skopeo, to look 

at). An optical instrument which assists in the examination of 

minute objects. 
Molar (L. mo la, a mill). The name applied to the three back teeth 

of each sMe of the jaw; the grinders, or mill-like teeth. 
Mucous Membrane. The thin layer of tissue which covers those 

internal cavities or passages which communicate with the external 

air. 
Mucus. The glairy fluid which is secreted by mucous membranes, 

and which serves to keep them in a moist condition. 
Nasal (L. na'sus, the nose). Pertaining to the nose; the nasal cavi- 
ties contain the distribution of the special nerve of smell. 
Nerve (Gr. vevpov, neuron, a cord or string). A glistening, white 

cord of cylindrical shape, connecting the brain or spinal cord with 

some other organ of the body. 
Nerve-Cell. A minute, round, and ashen- gray cell found in the 

brain and other nervous centres. 
Nerve Fi'ber. An exceedingly slender thread of nervous tissue 



156 GLOSSARY. 

found in the various nervous organs, but especially in the nerves; it 
is of a white color. 

Nu-tri tion (L. nu'trio, to nourish). The processes by which the 
nourishment of the body is accomplished. 

(E-soph'a-gus (Gr.). Literally, that which carries food. The tube 
leading from the throat to the stomach; the gullet. 

Optic (Gr. onzoo, opto, to see). Pertaining to the sense of sight. 

Or bit (L. or bis, the socket). The bony socket or cavity in which 
the eyeball is situated. 

Palate (L. palatum, the palate). The roof of the mouth, consisting 
of the hard and soft palate. 

Pan cre-as (Gr. 7tds, %avz6^, pas, pantos, all, and xpeat, kreas, 
flesh). A long, flat gland situated near the stomach; in the lower 
animals the analogous organ is called the sweet-bread. 

Pa-pil'lje (L. pi. of papilla). The minute prominences in which ter- 
minate the ultimate fibres of the nerves of touch and taste. 

Pa-ral'y-sis. A disease of the nervous system marked by the loss of 
sensation, or voluntary motion, or both; palsy. 

Per-i-car'dium (Gr. tie pi, peri, about, and xapdia, kardia, heart). 
The sac enclosing the heart. 

Per-spi-ra'tion (L. perspi'ro, to breathe through). The sweat, or 
watery exhalation of the skin; when visible, it is called sensible 
perspiration, when invisible, it is called insensible perspiration. 

Pharynx (Gr. cpapvvq, pharunx, the throat). The cavity between 
the back of the mouth and gullet. 

Phys-i-ol'o-gy (Gr. q>v6i%,phusis, nature, and \6yoS, logos, a dis- 
course). The science of the functions of living, organized beings. 

Pul mo-na-ry (L. pul'mo, pulmonis, the lungs). Pertaining to the 
lungs. 

Pulse (L. pel'lo, pul' sum, to beat). The striking of an artery against 
the finger, occasioned by the contraction of the heart, commonly 
felt at the wrist. 

Pupil (L. pupilla). The central, round opening in the iris, through 
which light passes into the depths of the eye. 

Py-lo'rus (L. 7tvXaop6s, puloros, a gate-keeper). The lower opening 
of the stomach, at the beginning of the small intestine. 

Re flex Action. An involuntary action of the nervous system, by 
which an external impression conducted by a sensory nerve is re- 
flected or converted into a motor impulse. 

Res-pi-ra tion (L. res'piro, to breathe frequently). The function of 



GLOSSARY. 157 

breathing, comprising two acts: inspiration, or breathing in, and 
expiration, or breathing out. 

Retina (L. re'te, a net). The innermost of the three tunics or coats 
of the eyeball, being an expansion of the optic nerve. 

Sac'cha-rixe (L. sac'charum, sugar). Of the nature of sugar; ap 
plied to the important group of food substances which embraces 
the different varieties of sugar, starch, and gum. 

Saliva (L.). The moisture or fluids of the mouth, secreted by the 
salivary glands, etc. 

Se-cre tion (L. secer'no, secre'tum, to separate). The process of sepa 
rating from the blood some essential important fluid ; which fluid 
is also called a secretion. 

Sen-sa tion. The perception of an external impression by the ner- 
vous system; a function of the brain. 

Sen-si-bil'i-ty, General. The power possessed by nearly all parts 
of the human body of recognizing the presence of foreign objects 
that come in contact with them. 

Sebum (L.). The watery constituent of the blood, which separates 
from the clot during the process of coagulation. 

Skeleton (Gr.). The bony framework of an animal, the differ- 
ent parts of which are maintained in their proper relative posi- 
tions. 

Stapes (L.). Literally, a stirrup; one of the small bones of the 
tympanum, or middle ear, resembling somewhat a stirrup in shape. 

Ten don (L. ten' do, to stretch). The white, fibrous cord or band by 
which a muscle is attached to a bone; a sinew. 

Thorax (Gr. Saopaz, thorax, a breast-plate). The upper cavity of 
the trunk of the body, containing the lungs, heart, etc. ; the chest. 

Tra'che-a (Gr. rpaxvS, trachus, rough). The windpipe, or the 
largest of the air-passages; composed in part of cartilaginous rings, 
which render its surface rough and uneven. 

Tympa-nl'm (Gr. rvjunavov, tumpanon, a drum). The cavity of 
the middle ear, resembling a drum in being closed by two mem- 
branes, and in having communication with the atmosphere. 

Venous (L. vena, a vein). Pertaining to, or contained within a 
vein. 

Yen-ti-la'tion. The introduction of fresh air into a room or build- 
ing in such a manner as to keep the air within it in a pure condi- 
tion. 

Ven-trilo-quism (L. venter, the belly, and lo'quor, to speak). A 
modification of natural speech by which the voice is made to ap- 



158 



GLOSSARY. 



pear to come from a distance. The ancients supposed that the 

voice was formed in the belly; hence the name. 
Yen tri-cles of the heart. The two largest cavities of the heart, 

situated at its apex or point. 
Ver te-bral Column (L. vertebra, a joint). The back-bone, con- 
sisting of twenty six separate bones, called vertebrae, firmly jointed 

together; also called the spinal column and spine. 
Villi (L. villus, the nap of cloth). Minute thread-like projections 

found upon the internal surface of the small intestine, giving it a 

velvety appearance. 
Vocal Cords. Two elastic bands or ridges situated in the larynx; 

they are the essential parts of the organs of the voice. 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



A. PAGE 

Abdomen 60, 61, 86 

Absorbent vessels 62 

Absorption of the food 62 

Acid, muriatic 19 

Poison from 146 

Adam's apple 83 

Air 14 

Changes in, in respiration. ... 8? 

Composition of 87 

Effects of impure 88 

Provision for purifying 91 

Air-passages 84 

Albumen 48, 59 

Alcohol 49 

as a fat-producer 78 

Effects of, on digestion 50, 65 

Effects of, on the brain 105 

Effects of, on the mind 50 

Effects of, on the heart 78 

for thirst > 50 

Hostility of. to life 65 

Proper use of 50 

The poisonous effects of 50 

Alexis St. Martin 59 

Alimentary canal 58 

Alkali, Poisons 147 

Anatomy 13 

Animal heat 47 

Ankle 24 

Antidotes 146 

Aorta 71 

Apoplexy 134 

Appendix 131 

Arms 24 

Arterial blood 72 

Arteries 70, 72 

Arrangement of 72 

Distribution of 72 

Auditory canal 1 24 

nerve 125 

Auricles of the heart 71, 72 

B. 

Back-bone 16, 20, 21 

Bathing 38 

Effect of 39 

Time and manner of 39 

Baths 39 

Beef 28 

Beer 50 

Bile 60 

Secretion of , in the liver 61 

Uses of 61 



PAGE 

Birds , 90 

Bleeding, how stopped 133 

Blood 14,53,68,95 

Arterial 72 

Change of color 73 

Circulation of 70 

Composition of 69 

Course of 75 

Microscopic appearance of 68 

Respiratory changes in 76 

Uses of the 69 

Venous 76 

Blood-vessels 18. 36, 55. 62 

Blood-vessels, Injuries to the. .. 133 

Body 11 

Movements of 29 

Bones 53 

Change in the 19 

Number of 16 

Size and shape of 17 

Strength of 18 

Substance of 19 

Brain 12, 101, 103 

Anatomical structure of 97 

Tissue of 98 

Bread 46, 53, 63 

Breast-bone 22 

Breathing 81 

Bronchial tubes 84 

Bunions 24 

Burns 132 

Butter 53 

C. 

Capillary blood-vessels 72, 84 

Carbonic acid 49, 69, 90 

in the air 88 

Cardiac 58 

Cartilage 21, 22, 84 

Cerebellum 98 

Cerebro-spinal nervous system. . 96 

Cerebrum 98 

Chest 70,84, 86 

Framework of 16, 20 

Chewing 53 

Chyle : 61 

Chyme 59 

Cider 49 

Cigarette-smoking 107 

Circulation 70, 95 

in the frog's foot 75 

Rapidity of 75 

through the heart 73 



160 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



PAGE 

Circulation through the lungs. . 74 

Cleanliness 40 

Clot 69,70 

Clothing 40, 41,77 

Coagulation of the blood 69 

Coffee 49 

Collar-bone 62 

Color-blindness 117 

Contraction of heart 71 

of inuscles 31 

Convulsions 133 

Cords, Vocal 85 

Cornea 116, 118 

Corns 24 

Corpuscles, Blood 68 

Country 145 

Crystalline lens 116, 118 

Cuticle...... 35 

Cutis 34 

D. 

Dandruff 35 

Dentition of infancy 55 

Diaphragm . . 13 

Movements of the, in respira- 
tion 86 

Diet 63 

Digestion 53, 65,95 

Circumstances affecting 65 

Effects of alcohol upon 65 

General plan of 58 

Intestinal 60 

Organs of 58 

Disinfection 143 

Drainage, House- 136 

Drain diseases 136 

Drinks, Alcoholic 50 

Drowning 135 

Duct, Nasal 120 

Thoracic 62 

E. 

Ear ....13,122 

Inner..... 122 

Middle 122, 123 

Outer 122 

Foreign bodies in the 126 

Drum of the 122 

Bones of the 124 

Ear-wax 123 

Eggs 46, 59, 63 

Elbow 24 

Emergencies 131 

Enamel of the teeth 54 

Epiglottis .57, 85 

Esquimau 47 

Eustachian tube 124 

Exercise 14, 31 

Different modes of . 32 

Effects of 31 

Excessive 32 

Expiration 86 

Eye 13, 115 

Eyelashes 120 

Eyelids 120 



F. PAGE 

Fainting 134 

Fats 47,48 

Feeling 95 

Feet 24 

Washing of 41 

Fermentation 49 

Fibers, Muscular 28 

Fibrillse 28 

Finger 12 

Fire 132 

Fish..... 90 

Fits 133 

Flesh 53 

Food 14, 47, 57 

Animal 47 

Daily quantitv of 43, 44, 63 

Vegetable 48 

Food-pipe 57, 86 

Frost-bites 132 

Fruits 48 

Function 13, 95 

Furnaces 88 

G. 

Gall-bladder .. 61 

Gases, Interchange of, in the 

lungs 90 

Gastric digestion 59 

Gastric juice 58, 61 

Gelatine 19 

Gin 49 

Glands 14 

Perspiratory 38 

Salivary 56 

Gullet 57 

Gum-chewing 65 

Gymnastics 33 

H. 

Hand, The .'.. 28 

Hair .. 37 

Hang-nails 36 

Harvey, William 70 

Health 14 

Hearing, sense of 121 

Heart 13,70 

Cavities of the.. . 71,73 

Circulation through the 73 

Movements of the 74 

Valves of the 71 

Heat, Animal 47 

Production of 47 

Hemispheres 98 

Hips, The 20, 22 

Home and health .136 

Houses, location of 136 

House-waste 137 

Hunger 43 

Hygiene 13 

I. 

Ice-water, effect upon digestion. 65 

Indigestion 64, 103 

Insensible perspiration . , 38 

Inspiration 66 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



161 



PAGE 

Intestinal juice 61 

Intestinal digestion 60 

Intestines 53, 60 

Small 60 

Large 60 

Villi of the 62 

Iris H? 

Irritation 12 



Jaws 53 

John the Baptist 49 

Joints 20 

Juice, Gastric -. 58, 61 

Intestinal 61 

Pancreatic. 60 

K. 

Kane, Dr 46 

Kerosene 132 

Kidneys 44 

Kingsley, Charles 41 

Knee-cap 17,28,29 

Knee-joint 22 



Labyrinth 125 

Lachrymal Gland 120 

Lacteals.. 62 

Large intestines 63 

Larynx 84 

Limbs, The 19 

Lime in the bones 19 

Salts of 46 

Liver ... 61 

Lungs 13, 22, 57, 69, 70, 82 

BE. 

Marrow of the bones 18 

Mastication 53 

Meat 46, 47, 53, 59 

Membrane of the tympanum. ... 123 

Medulla oblongata 100 

Microscope 29, 68 

Mind..,. 12 

Milk 46,47,53 

Milk-teeth 55 

Motion 95 

Mucous membrane 114 

Muscles 12, 13. 27, 30, 53, 63, 101 

Voluntary and involuntary ... 31 

Muscular fibers 27 

Mustard . ... 65 

N. 

Nails ... 36 

Nasal cavities 114 

duct 120 

Nerve, Auditory 125 

Nerves 12, 13, 55, 95, 97, 101 

Optic 116 

Nerve cells 98 

Nerve fibers 98 

Nerves, spinal 101 

Functions of the 101 

Nerve power 101 

11 



PAGE 

Nervous system 95 

Cerebro "spinal 96 

Nicotine 106 

Nitrogen 87 

Nose 13 

O. 

Oatmeal 63 

(Esophagus 85 

Opium 107 

Optic nerve 116 

Organ 13 

Organs of circulation 71, 72 

Digestion 58 

Respiration 82 

Sight 115 

Oxygen 69 

Oxygen, continually supplied to 
the atmosphere 87 

P. 

Pain, Cause of 12 

Sensation of Ill 

Pancreas 61 

Pancreatic juice 60 

Papillae 112 

Passages, Air 83 

Pepper 65 

Pepsin 59 

Perspiration 37 

Sensible and insensible 38 

Perspiratory glands.. . . 38 

Physical strength 32 

11 Physicians, Three Greatest ". . 40 

Physiology 13 

Pimples 64 

Plants 12, 90 

Poisons and their antidotes 146 

Poppy-plant 107 

Pores 37 

Pork 47 

Preservation of the teeth 56 

Pulsation of the heart 77 

Pulse 77 

Pupil, The 117 

Pylorus 58 



Red corpuscles of the blood 68 

Reflex action of the spinal cord 102 

Respiration 81, 95 

Vegetable 95 

Change of blood in 73 

Frequency of 87 

Movements of 86 

Organs of 82 

Rest, Necessity for 104 

Retina 116 

Ribs 22 

Movements of, in respiration. . 86 
Rum 49, 50 

S. 

Saliva 56 

Salivary glands 56 



162 



TOPICAL 



PAGE 

Salt, Common 45, 90 

Sap 95 

Scalds 132 

Scalp, The 37 

Scars from burns 132 

Scurvy 46 

Sensation of pain 110 

Sense of hearing 121 

sight 115 

smell 114 

taste 112 

touch Ill 

Senses, The five special 110, 111 

Serum 70 

Sewers 137 

Short-sight 118 

Sick-bed 41 

Sick-room, Care of the 140 

Sight. Sense of 115 

Organs of 13 

Skeleton . . . 13, 16, 17, 19 

Skin 35,44 

Skull 16,19 

Sleep 14 

Necessity for 104 

Small intestines 60 

Small-pox.... 38,88 

Smell, Sense of 114 

Smoking, Effects of 106 

Cigarette 93, 107 

Snuff-taking 107 

Sound. Production of 121 

Special senses Ill 

Spinal column 100 

Spinal cord 100 

Spinal cord. Nerves of 101 

Reflex action of 102 

Spinal nerves 101, 102 

Spine 16 

Spleen 61 

St. Martin, Alexis 59 

Starch 47 

Microscopic appearance 48 

Stimulation, Effects of mild 105 

Stomach 53, 58 

Digestion 59 

Movements of 59 

Sugar 47,48,90 

Sunstroke 134 

Sweet-bread 61 

Sweat 37 

Sweat gland 37 



Taste 112 

Tea, Effect of 49 



INDEX. 

PAGE 

Tears 120 

Teeth 53, 54 

Arrangement of 55 

of different animals 56 

Preservation of 56 

Telegraph-wires 12 

Tendon of Achilles 29 

Tendons 29 

Thighs 23 

Thoracic duct 62 

Thorax 13,16 

Tissue 14 

Tobacco 106 

Tongue 85 

Touch. Ill 

Trachea 84 

Trap 137 

Trunk 13, 19, 86 

Tympanum of the ear 123 

V. 

Valves of the heart 71 

Veal 47 

Vegetable food 46 

respiration 90 

Vegetative functions 95 

Veins 72 

Venous blood 133 

Changes of, in respiration ... 73 

Ventilation 91 

Ventricles of the heart 71 

Vertebrae 21 

Vertigo 134 

Villi of the intestines 62 

Vocal cords 85 

Voice 85 

W. 

Waste-pipes 137 

Water-seal 137 

Water-closet 139 

Water 43,44 

Walking, as a means of exercise 32 

Well. Care of the . 138 

Whiskey 49 

Windpipe 57,84 

Windows f" 

Will 11, 12 

Wisdom teeth 56 

Wrist 17,24 

Y. 

Yolk : 46 



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:•:;.■ I 



A COM] 




HHHl 



BY 



JOSEPH 0. HUTCHISON, 

yew York Academy of Medicine; Surgeon to 1h 

Hospital; late President of the Medical Society of the 
, gBp : State of New York, 



FOR ELEMENTARY GRADES. 

First Lessors jn Physiology akd Hygiene. 
160 Pages, 16mo ? Clotli. 



■ ■ :FOR GRAMMAR GRAPES. 

The Laws of Health, 
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.FOA* COLLEGES, HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES, 

Physiology and Hygiene. 



l£a eh bo< »k i n tli e course coin pi 
firm in the physiological effect 



requiring iiirttin 
narcotics. I j 



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